Assessing Feeding Difficulties in Children Presenting with Non-IgE-Mediated Gastrointestinal Food Allergies-A Commonly Reported Problem.

Many guidelines have been published to help diagnose food allergies, which have included feeding difficulties as a presenting symptom (particularly for non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal allergies). This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of feeding difficulties in children with non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal allergies and the association of such difficulties with symptoms and food elimination. An observational study was performed at Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK. Children aged 4 weeks to 16 years without non-allergic co-morbidities who improved on an elimination diet using a previously published Likert scale symptom score were included. This study recruited 131 children, and 114 (87%) parents completed the questionnaire on feeding difficulties. Feeding difficulties were present in 61 (53.5%) of the 114 children. The most common feeding difficulties were regular meal refusals (26.9%), extended mealtimes (26.7%), and problems with gagging on textured foods (26.5%). Most children (40/61) had ≥2 reported feeding difficulties, and eight had ≥4. Children with feeding difficulties had higher rates of constipation and vomiting: 60.7% (37/61) vs. 35.8% (19/53), p = 0.008 and 63.9% (39/61) vs. 41.5% (22/53), p = 0.017, respectively. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated an association between having feeding difficulties, the age of the child, and the initial symptom score. Gender and the number of foods excluded in the elimination diet were not significantly associated with feeding difficulties. This study found that feeding difficulties are common in children with non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal allergies, but there is a paucity of food allergy specific tools for establishing feeding difficulties, which requires further research in the long-term and consensus in the short term amongst healthcare professions as to which tool is the best for food allergic children.

Diagnosis and management of food allergy-induced constipation in young children-An EAACI position paper.

The recognition of constipation as a possible non-Immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergic condition is challenging because functional constipation (unrelated to food allergies) is a common health problem with a reported worldwide prevalence rate of up to 32.2% in children. However, many studies in children report challenge proven cow's milk allergy and constipation as a primary symptom and have found that between 28% and 78% of children improve on a cow's milk elimination diet. Due to the paucity of data and a focus on IgE-mediated allergy, not all food allergy guidelines list constipation as a symptom of food allergy. Yet, it is included in all cow's milk allergy guidelines available in English language. The Exploring Non-IgE-Mediated Allergy (ENIGMA) Task Force (TF) of the European Academy for Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) considers in this paper constipation in the context of failure of standard treatment and discuss the role of food allergens as culprit in constipation in children. This position paper used the Delphi approach in reaching consensus on both diagnosis and management, as currently published data are insufficient to support a systematic review.

Working with companies that manufacture breastmilk substitutes: An EAACI position paper.

Breastmilk is the optimal source of nutrition for infants and should ideally be provided exclusively for the first 6 months of life, and alongside complementary food until 2 years of life. However, there are circumstances where a breastmilk substitute (BMS) may be required. This includes maternal and/or child conditions or personal preference. Whilst these circumstances should never be used as an opportunity to promote BMS, healthcare professionals (HCPs) need to have the knowledge of suitable alternatives and should always be guided by scientific and health motives when recommending a BMS. The Task Force 'Milk Formula Industry Sponsorship' from the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI), provides with this publication recommendations for EAACI interactions with the BMS manufacturers and how this will be supervised.

Feeding difficulties in children with food allergies: An EAACI Task Force Report.

The term "feeding difficulties" refers to a spectrum of phenotypes characterized by suboptimal intake of food and/or lack of age-appropriate eating habits. While it is evident that feeding difficulties are prevalent within healthy children, no consensus has been reached for those with food allergies. The aim of this study was to systematically review all the available literature reporting the prevalence of feeding difficulties within food allergic children. We searched eight international electronic databases for all published studies until June 2022. International experts in the field were also contacted for unpublished and ongoing studies. All publications were screened against pre-defined eligibility criteria and critically appraised by established instruments. The substantial heterogeneity of included studies precluded meta-analyses, so narrative synthesis of quantitative data was performed. A total of 2059 abstracts were assessed, out of which 21 underwent full-text screening and 10 studies met the study criteria. In these, 12 different terms to define feeding difficulties and 11 diagnostic tools were used. Five papers included data of feeding difficulty prevalence in children with food allergies, ranging from 13.6% to 40%. Higher prevalence was associated with multiple food allergies. The current literature suggests that feeding difficulties are prevalent within food allergic children, particularly those with multiple food allergies. However, the heterogeneity of terminologies and diagnostic tools makes drawing conclusions challenging. Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of feeding difficulties within food allergic children and further research on the development and perpetuation of feeding difficulties are needed to appropriately manage such patients.

Identifying Children at Risk of Growth and Nutrient Deficiencies in the Food Allergy Clinic.

BACKGROUND: Food allergies affect growth in children by decreasing the availability of nutrients through decreased dietary intake, increased dietary needs, food-medication interactions, and psychosocial burden. Guidelines on food allergy management frequently recommend nutrition counseling and growth monitoring of children with food allergies. OBJECTIVE: To provide clear guidance for clinicians to identify children with food allergies who are at nutritional risk and ensure prompt intervention. METHODS: We provide a narrative review summarizing information from national and international guidelines, retrospective studies, population studies, review articles, case reports, and case series to identify those with food allergy at greatest nutritional risk, determine the impact of nutritional interventions on growth, and develop guidance for risk reduction in children with food allergies. RESULTS: Children with food allergies are at increased risk of nutritional deficiencies and poor growth. Nutritional assessment and intervention can improve outcomes. Identifying poor growth is an important step in the nutrition assessment. Therefore, growth should be assessed at each allergy evaluation. Interventions to ensure adequate dietary intake for growth include appropriately prescribed elimination diets, breast-feeding support and assessment, supplemental formula, vitamin and/or mineral supplementation, appropriate milk substitutes, and timely introduction of nutrient-dense complementary foods. Access to foods of appropriate nutritional value is an ongoing concern. CONCLUSION: Nutrition intervention or referral to registered dietitian nutritionists with additional training and/or experience in food allergy may result in improved growth and nutrition outcomes.

Cow's Milk-related Symptom Score (CoMiSS) values in presumed healthy European infants aged 6-12 months: a cross-sectional study.

The Cow's Milk-related Symptom Score (CoMiSS) is an awareness tool for evaluating cow's milk-related symptoms. Previous studies have focused on providing CoMiSS values for healthy and symptomatic infants aged 0-6 months. However, there is a notable gap in the literature concerning CoMiSS values for infants older than 6 months. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine CoMiSS values in presumed healthy infants who have completed 6 months and are up to 12 months old, hereafter referred to as 6 to 12 months old. Physicians from six European countries prospectively determined CoMiSS values in infants attending well-child clinics. Exclusion criteria included preterm delivery, acute or chronic disease, and the consumption of a therapeutic formula, dietary supplements (except vitamins), or medication. The following information was collected: gestational age, gender, age, type of feed (breast milk or infant formula), and complementary feeding. Descriptive statistics were summarized with mean and standard deviation for normally distributed continuous variables, median and IQR for non-normally distributed variables, and differences in CoMiSS values were analyzed with appropriate tests. Data from 609 infants were obtained. The overall median (Q1-Q3) CoMiSS values were 3 (1-5). Significant differences were found across age groups (p < 0.001), but not across groups based on gender (p = 0.551) or feeding type (p = 0.880).   Conclusions: This study provided CoMiSS values in presumed healthy infants aged 6-12 months. Additional studies should be conducted to establish the use of CoMiSS to assess cow's milk-related symptoms in infants 6 months and older. What is Known: • The Cow's Milk-related Symptom Score (CoMiSS) is an awareness tool for evaluating symptoms related to cow's milk. • CoMiSS values for presumed healthy infants aged 0-6 months infants are already available. What is New: • CoMiSS values in European infants aged 6-12 months are provided. • These CoMiSS values differed across various age groups but not across groups based on gender or feeding type.

The Remaining Challenge to Diagnose and Manage Cow's Milk Allergy: An Opinion Paper to Daily Clinical Practice.

Guidelines and recommendations for the diagnosis and management of cow's milk allergy (CMA) in childhood are based on scientific review of the available evidence. While this approach is the most rigorous, guidelines may not fully address all scenarios encountered by clinicians. Many symptoms of CMA overlap with other common childhood illnesses and are subjectively reported by the caregivers of the infant, as is the interpretation of the dietary interventions. Additionally, many healthcare professionals and caregivers do not follow the recommendations to perform an oral food challenge or reintroduction of cow's milk after a diagnostic elimination diet because (1) the infant is doing well and (2) the carer's fear of symptoms relapsing with this procedure. As a result, CMA in infants may be either under-diagnosed leading to reduced quality of life for families or over-diagnosed, resulting in unnecessary long-term elimination diets and increasing the risk for nutritional deficiencies. This paper discusses some of these controversial topics, focusing on misdiagnosis and mismanagement in clinical practice. The lack of objective diagnostic criteria can hamper the diagnosis and management of CMA in daily practice.

Growth and Nutritional Biomarkers in Brazilian Infants with Cow's Milk Allergy at Diagnosis and 18-Month Follow-Up: A Prospective Cohort Study.

Purpose: This study aimed to describe the growth, body protein status, and micronutrient biomarkers of Brazilian infants with cow's milk allergy (CMPA) at baseline and at 18 months of follow-up in comparison with their healthy peers. Methods: Thirty infants with CMPA younger than six months of age were included in this longitudinal study, and their nutritional status was compared with that of 24 non-allergic age-matched children. Anthropometric measurements were used to assess growth, and blood and urine samples were analyzed for protein and micronutrient status. Mixed linear models adjusted for birth weight, socioeconomic status, infant feeding at baseline, weight-for-age, C-reactive protein, serum albumin, micronutrient dietary supplementation, and salt consumption were employed to evaluate the evolution of nutritional parameters throughout the follow-up period. Results: Overall, the mean age of the children at enrolment was 2.9 (standard deviation 1.7) months, and 29 children (53.7%) were male. Infants with CMPA showed a higher prevalence of functional iron depletion (transferrin saturation <20) (p=0.027), lower serum ferritin (p=0.009), and lower urinary iodine (p=0.034) levels than non-allergic children at baseline. Patients with CMPA showed a higher increment in weight-for-age and length-for-age over time than those in the control group (p<0.01). Mixed linear analyses showed a significantly lower increase in serum vitamin B12 (s-B12) (p=0.001) and urinary iodine (p<0.001) concentrations over time compared to the control group. Conclusion: Infants with CMPA on a cow's milk elimination diet had a higher weight and length at 18 months of follow-up but showed signs of inadequate iron, iodine, and B-12 vitamin status.

EAACI guidelines on the diagnosis of IgE-mediated food allergy.

This European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology guideline provides recommendations for diagnosing IgE-mediated food allergy and was developed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. Food allergy diagnosis starts with an allergy-focused clinical history followed by tests to determine IgE sensitization, such as serum allergen-specific IgE (sIgE) and skin prick test (SPT), and the basophil activation test (BAT), if available. Evidence for IgE sensitization should be sought for any suspected foods. The diagnosis of allergy to some foods, such as peanut and cashew nut, is well supported by SPT and serum sIgE, whereas there are less data and the performance of these tests is poorer for other foods, such as wheat and soya. The measurement of sIgE to allergen components such as Ara h 2 from peanut, Cor a 14 from hazelnut and Ana o 3 from cashew can be useful to further support the diagnosis, especially in pollen-sensitized individuals. BAT to peanut and sesame can be used additionally. The reference standard for food allergy diagnosis is the oral food challenge (OFC). OFC should be performed in equivocal cases. For practical reasons, open challenges are suitable in most cases. Reassessment of food allergic children with allergy tests and/or OFCs periodically over time will enable reintroduction of food into the diet in the case of spontaneous acquisition of oral tolerance.

Cow's Milk-Related Symptom Score (CoMiSS): From Bristol to Brussels Stool Scale.

OBJECTIVES: The Cow's Milk-related Symptom Score (CoMISS) is an awareness tool for evaluating cow's milk-related symptoms in otherwise healthy infants <1 year of age. This study assessed whether replacing the Bristol Stool Form Scale (BSFS) with the Brussels Infants and Toddlers Stool Scale (BITSS) in non-toilet-trained infants would modify the overall CoMiSS and change the clinical approach regarding potential cow's milk allergy. METHODS: Non-toilet-trained infants aged <13 months were assessed by CoMiSS using the 7 images from the BSFS (CoMiSS-BSFS) compared to the 4 images of stools from BITSS (CoMiSS-BITSS). The Wilcoxon signed-rank test and Pearson correlation coefficient were calculated. A post hoc analysis using identical tests was performed in subsets of CoMiSS-BSFS scores ≥10, ≥12, ≤5, and ≥6. RESULTS: Eight hundred forty-four pairwise scores were collected. Applying the Wilcoxon test over the complete dataset, the difference between CoMiSS-BSFS and CoMiSS-BITSS was statistically significant ( P < 0.001). However, there was no significant difference in the subsets with CoMiSS-BSFS ≥10, ≥12, and ≥6 ( P = 0.84, P = 0.48, and P = 0.81, respectively). The significant difference remained restricted to the group with CoMiSS-BSFS ≤5, considered at low risk for CM-related symptoms ( P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Replacing BSFS with BITSS does not change the cutoff for awareness of possible CM-related symptoms and will not impact the use of CoMiSS in clinical practice. Changes in CoMiSS remained limited to the subgroup with a low risk for CM-related symptoms.

World Allergy Organization (WAO) Diagnosis and Rationale for Action against Cow's Milk Allergy (DRACMA) Guideline update - VII - Milk elimination and reintroduction in the diagnostic process of cow's milk allergy.

The diagnosis of cow's milk allergy (CMA) in infants and young children remains a challenge because many of the presenting symptoms are similar to those experienced in other diagnoses. Both over- and under-diagnosis occur frequently. Misdiagnosis carries allergic and nutritional risks, including acute reactions, growth faltering, micronutrient deficiencies and a diminished quality of life for infants and caregivers. An inappropriate diagnosis may also add a financial burden on families and on the healthcare system. Elimination and reintroduction of cow's milk (CM) and its derivatives is essential for diagnosing CMA as well as inducing tolerance to CM. In non-IgE mediated CMA, the diagnostic elimination diet typically requires 2-4 weeks before reintroduction, while for IgE mediated allergy the time window may be shorter (1-2 weeks). An oral food challenge (OFC) under medical supervision remains the most reliable diagnostic method for IgE mediated and more severe types of non-IgE mediated CMA such as food protein induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES). Conversely, for other forms of non-IgE mediated CMA, reintroduction can be performed at home. The OFC cannot be replaced by the milk ladder after a diagnostic elimination diet. The duration of the therapeutic elimination diet, once a diagnosis was confirmed, can only be established through testing changes in sensitization status, OFCs or home reintroduction, which are directed by local protocols and services' availability. Prior non-evidence-based recommendations suggest that the first therapeutic elimination diet should last for at least 6 months or up to the age of 9-12 months, whichever is reached first. After a therapeutic elimination diet, a milk-ladder approach can be used for non-IgE mediated allergies to determine tolerance. Whilst some centers use the milk ladder also for IgE mediated allergies, there are concerns about the risk of having immediate-type reactions at home. Milk ladders have been adapted to local dietary habits, and typically start with small amounts of baked milk which then step up in the ladder to less heated and fermented foods, increasing the allergenicity. This publication aims to narratively review the risks associated with under- and over-diagnosis of CMA, therefore stressing the necessity of an appropriate diagnosis and management.

The role of online symptom questionnaires to support the diagnosis of cow's milk allergy in children for healthcare professionals - A Delphi consensus study.

BACKGROUND: Cow's milk allergy (CMA) is one of the most common food allergies world-wide. The emergence of online CMA symptom questionnaires, aimed at parents and/or healthcare professionals (HCP), may raise awareness about the possible diagnosis of CMA, but also increases the risk for overdiagnosis leading to unnecessary dietary restriction impacting on growth and nutrition. This publication sets out to establish the availability of these CMA symptom questionnaires and critically assesses the development and validity. METHODS: Thirteen HCP working in the field of CMA, from different countries, were recruited to participate. A combination of a Pubmed and CINAHL literature and online review using the Google search engine in English language was used. Symptoms in the questionnaires were assessed, using the European Academy for Allergy and Clinical Immunology guidelines for food allergy. Following the assessment of both the questionnaires and literature, the authors followed the modified Delphi approach to generate consensus statements. RESULTS: Six hundred and fifty-one publications were identified, of which 29 were suitable for inclusion, with 26 being associated with the Cow's Milk-Related Symptoms Score. The online search yielded 10 available questionnaires: 7/10 were sponsored by formula milk companies and 7/10 were aimed at parents and three at HCP. Following the assessment of data, 19 statements were generated in two rounds of anonymous voting reaching 100% agreement. CONCLUSIONS: Online CMA questionnaires, available to parents and HCP's, are varied in symptoms, and most were not validated. The overarching consensus generated from authors is that these questionnaires should not be used without the involvement of HCP.

Catch-Up Growth in Infants and Young Children With Faltering Growth: Expert Opinion to Guide General Clinicians.

Faltering growth (FG) is a problem regularly seen by clinicians in infants and young children (<2 years of age). It can occur due to non-disease-related and disease-related causes and is associated with a wide range of adverse outcomes, including shorter-term effects such as impaired immune responses and increased length of hospital stay, and longer-term consequences, including an impact on schooling and cognitive achievements, short stature, and socioeconomic outcomes. It is essential to detect FG, address underlying causes and support catch-up growth where this is indicated. However, anecdotal reports suggest misplaced fear of promoting accelerated (too rapid) growth may deter some clinicians from adequately addressing FG. An invited international group of experts in pediatric nutrition and growth reviewed the available evidence and guidelines on FG resulting from disease-related and non-disease-related effects on nutritional status in healthy term and small for gestational age infants and children up to the age of 2 years in low-, middle-, and high-income countries. Using a modified Delphi process, we developed practical consensus recommendations to provide clarity and practical recommendations for general clinicians on how FG should be defined in different young child populations at risk, how FG should be assessed and managed, and the role of catch-up growth after a period of FG. We also suggested areas where further research is needed to answer remaining questions on this important issue.

The immune-supportive diet in allergy management: A narrative review and proposal.

The role of nutrition is increasingly recognized in the management of chronic immune diseases. However, the role of an immune-supportive diet as adjuvant therapy in the management of allergic disease has not been similarly explored. This review assesses the existing evidence for a relationship between nutrition, immune function, and allergic disease from a clinical perspective. In addition, the authors propose an immune-supportive diet to enhance dietary interventions and complementing other therapeutic options for allergic disease from early life to adulthood. A narrative review of the literature was conducted, to determine the evidence of the relationship between nutrition and immune function, overall health, epithelial barrier function, and gut microbiome, particularly in relation to allergy. Studies on food supplements were excluded. The evidence was assessed and utilized to develop a sustainable immune-supportive diet to complement other therapies in allergic disease. The proposed diet consists of a highly diverse range of fresh, whole, and minimally processed plant-based and fermented foods supplemented with moderate amounts of nuts, omega-3-rich foods and animal-based products in proportional amounts of the EAT-Lancet diet, such as (fatty) fish, (fermented) milk products which may be full-fat and eggs, lean meat or poultry, which may be free-range or organic.

Non-IgE mediated food allergies in breastfed children: A clinical challenge.

The prevalence of non-immunoglobulin E (IgE) mediated food allergy is poorly established outside of cow's milk allergy, with a challenge-proven adjusted incidence ranging between 0.13 and 0.72%. The presence and presentation of non-IgE mediated allergy in exclusively breastfed infants is highly debated. The dilemma this poses for healthcare professionals and parents, is on the one hand the unwarranted elimination and therefore health risk to the breastfeeding mother and on the other hand under-recognition of a food allergen being a culprit in the non-IgE mediated symptoms of breastfed infants. Current international guidelines recommend exclusive breastfeeding ideally until ~ 6 months of age and the German guidelines 4 - 6 months. It is also acknowledged that breastfeeding should be promoted also within the population of food-allergic infants. This review paper aims to assess non-IgE mediated food allergies in breastfed infants using an evidence-based approach and provides clinicians working with these patients with practical guidance.

Hydrolyzed rice formula for dietary management of infants with cow's milk allergy.

Background: Allergic diseases are increasing globally and are a significant public health challenge, especially in children. Cow's milk allergy (CMA) is one of the most common food allergies in early childhood. When CMA is diagnosed and exclusive breastfeeding is not possible, current guidelines recommend extensively hydrolyzed formulas (eHF) or amino acid-based formulas (AAF), depending on the diagnosis and severity of symptoms. Hydrolyzed rice formulas (HRF) are considered an alternative to eHF and AAF where available. Objectives & methods: We aimed to understand how HRF are being used and their position in the management of CMA, and to generate consensus on indications for use. Two virtual roundtables of international healthcare experts in pediatric food allergy focused on HRF were convened in May and October 2021. Experts provided multiple perspectives due to different specialties, locations, healthcare settings, and availability of HRF. Following discussion of international CMA guidelines and HRF use, identification of challenges along the diagnosis and treatment pathway, and translation of guidelines into clinical practice, an expert consensus on the use of HRF for CMA was developed. This involved repeated voting followed by statement amendment to reach 100% agreement. This publication summarizes insights from these meetings. Results: There was 100% agreement on all 8 statements: (1) While breastmilk is the best source of nutrition for infants with CMA, when breastfeeding is not possible, a hypoallergenic formula can be used; (2) Per definition, a HRF is cow's milk protein-free; (3) A minority of infants with immunoglobulin (Ig)E-mediated CMA react to eHF due to residual cow's milk protein; (4) More infants with non-IgE-mediated CMA than IgE-mediated CMA react to eHF likely due to residual cow's milk protein; (5) When a diagnostic elimination diet is indicated, HRF can be used; (6) A HRF can be recommended as a first-line option for CMA, where available, as outlined in the Diagnosis and Rationale for Action against Cow's Milk Allergy guidelines; (7) HRFs have proven hypoallergenicity and are suitable for the dietary management of CMA; (8) HRFs have been shown to support growth in infants with CMA, similar to other hypoallergenic formulas. Participants recommend healthcare professionals take these statements as guidance to use HRF in clinical practice. Based on efficacy and growth evidence, the experts found HRF a suitable option for the dietary management of CMA. Conclusion: HRF can be recommended as a first-line alternative to cow's milk-based eHF or AAF, where available, in the dietary management of CMA.

Diagnosis and management of food allergy-associated gastroesophageal reflux disease in young children-EAACI position paper.

Gastro-oesophageal reflux (GOR) and food allergy (FA) are common conditions, especially during the first 12 months of life. When GOR leads to troublesome symptoms, that affect the daily functioning of the infant and family, it is referred to as GOR disease (GORD). The role of food allergens as a cause of GORD remains controversial. This European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) position paper aims to review the evidence for FA-associated GORD in young children and translate this into clinical practice that guides healthcare professionals through the diagnosis of suspected FA-associated GORD and medical and dietary management. The task force (TF) on non-IgE mediated allergy consists of EAACI experts in paediatric gastroenterology, allergy, dietetics and psychology from Europe, United Kingdom, United States, Turkey and Brazil. Six clinical questions were formulated, amended and approved by the TF to guide this publication. A systematic literature search using PubMed, Cochrane and EMBASE databases (until June 2021) using predefined inclusion criteria based on the 6 questions was used. The TF also gained access to the database from the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology working group, who published guidelines on GORD and ensured that all publications used within that position paper were included. For each of the 6 questions, practice points were formulated, followed by a modified Delphi method consisting of anonymous web-based voting that was repeated with modified practice points where required, until at least 80% consensus for each practice point was achieved. This TF position paper shares the process, the discussion and consensus on all practice points on FA-associated GORD.

Managing food allergy: GA2LEN guideline 2022.

Food allergy affects approximately 2-4% of children and adults. This guideline provides recommendations for managing food allergy from the Global Allergy and Asthma European Network (GA2LEN). A multidisciplinary international Task Force developed the guideline using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) II framework and the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. We reviewed the latest available evidence as of April 2021 (161 studies) and created recommendations by balancing benefits, harms, feasibility, and patient and clinician experiences. We suggest that people diagnosed with food allergy avoid triggering allergens (low certainty evidence). We suggest that infants with cow's milk allergy who need a breastmilk alternative use either hypoallergenic extensively hydrolyzed cow's milk formula or an amino acid-based formula (moderate certainty). For selected children with peanut allergy, we recommend oral immunotherapy (high certainty), though epicutaneous immunotherapy might be considered depending on individual preferences and availability (moderate certainty). We suggest considering oral immunotherapy for children with persistent severe hen's egg or cow's milk allergy (moderate certainty). There are significant gaps in evidence about safety and effectiveness of the various strategies. Research is needed to determine the best approaches to education, how to predict the risk of severe reactions, whether immunotherapy is cost-effective and whether biological therapies are effective alone or combined with allergen immunotherapy.