Estimating minimum dietary diversity for children aged 6-23 months: a comparison of agreement and cost of two recall methods in Cambodia and Zambia.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the agreement and cost of two recall methods for estimating children's minimum dietary diversity (MDD). DESIGN: We assessed child's dietary intake on two consecutive days: an observation on day one, followed by two recall methods (list-based recall and multiple-pass recall) administered in random order by different enumerators at two different times on day two. We compared the estimated MDD prevalence using survey-weighted linear probability models following a two one-sided test equivalence testing approach. We also estimated the cost-effectiveness of the two methods. SETTING: Cambodia (Kampong Thom, Siem Reap, Battambang, and Pursat provinces) and Zambia (Chipata, Katete, Lundazi, Nyimba, and Petauke districts). PARTICIPANTS: Children aged 6-23 months: 636 in Cambodia and 608 in Zambia. RESULTS: MDD estimations from both recall methods were equivalent to the observation in Cambodia but not in Zambia. Both methods were equivalent to the observation in capturing most food groups. Both methods were highly sensitive although the multiple-pass method accurately classified a higher proportion of children meeting MDD than the list-based method in both countries. Both methods were highly specific in Cambodia but moderately so in Zambia. Cost-effectiveness was better for the list-based recall method in both countries. CONCLUSION: The two recall methods estimated MDD and most other infant and young child feeding indicators equivalently in Cambodia but not in Zambia, compared to the observation. The list-based method produced slightly more accurate estimates of MDD at the population level, took less time to administer and was less costly to implement.

Assessing the performance of national sentinel food lists at subnational levels in six countries.

OBJECTIVE: To assess how well national sentinel lists of the most frequently consumed foods in each food group capture data at subnational levels to measure minimum diet diversity (MDD). DESIGN: We analysed data from seven surveys with 24-h open dietary recalls to evaluate: (1) the percentage of reported foods that were included in each sentinel food list; (2) whether these lists captured consumption of some food groups better than others and (3) differences between estimates of dietary diversity calculated from all food items mentioned in the open 24-h recall v. only food items included in the sentinel lists. SETTING: Seven subnational areas: Bangladesh (2), Benin, Colombia, Kenya, Malawi and Nepal. PARTICIPANTS: 8094 women 15-49 years; 4588 children 6-23 months. RESULTS: National sentinel food lists captured most foods reportedly consumed by women (84 %) and children (86 %). Food groups with the highest variability were 'other fruits' and 'other vegetables.' MDD calculated from the sentinel list was, on average, 6·5 (women) and 4·1 (children) percentage points lower than when calculated from open 24-h recalls, with a statistically significant difference in most subnational areas. CONCLUSION: National sentinel food lists can provide reliable data at subnational levels for most food groups, with some variability by country and sub-region. Assessing the accuracy of national sentinel food lists, especially for fruits and vegetables, before using them at the subnational level could avoid potentially underestimating dietary diversity and provide more accurate local information for programmes, policy and research.

Association between Malaria Infection and Early Childhood Development Mediated by Anemia in Rural Kenya.

Malaria is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among children under five years of age, with most cases occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. Children in this age group in Africa are at greatest risk worldwide for developmental deficits. There are research gaps in quantifying the risks of mild malaria cases, understanding the pathways linking malaria infection and poor child development, and evaluating the impact of malaria on the development of children under five years. We analyzed the association between malaria infection and gross motor, communication, and personal social development in 592 children age 24 months in rural, western Kenya as part of the WASH Benefits environmental enteric dysfunction sub-study. Eighteen percent of children had malaria, 20% were at risk for gross motor delay, 21% were at risk for communication delay, and 23% were at risk for personal social delay. Having a positive malaria test was associated with increased risk for gross motor, communication, and personal social delay while adjusting for child characteristics, household demographics, study cluster, and intervention treatment arm. Mediation analyses suggested that anemia was a significant mediator in the pathway between malaria infection and risk for gross motor, communication, and personal social development delays. The proportion of the total effect of malaria on the risk of developmental delay that is mediated by anemia across the subscales was small (ranging from 9% of the effect on gross motor development to 16% of the effect on communication development mediated by anemia). Overall, malaria may be associated with short-term developmental delays during a vulnerable period of early life. Therefore, preventative malaria measures and immediate treatment are imperative for children's optimal development, particularly in light of projections of continued high malaria transmission in Kenya and Africa.

Characteristics of Pica Behavior among Mothers around Lake Victoria, Kenya: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Background: Pica, the craving and purposeful consumption of nonfoods, is poorly understood. We described the prevalence of pica among women on Mfangano Island, Kenya, and examined sociodemographic and health correlates. Methods: Our cross-sectional study included 299 pregnant or postpartum women in 2012. We used a 24-h recall to assess pica, defined as consumption of earth (geophagy), charcoal/ash, or raw starches (amylophagy) and built multivariable logistic regression models to examine sociodemographic and health correlates of pica. Results: Eighty-one women (27.1%) engaged in pica in the previous 24 h, with 59.3% reporting amylophagy and 56.8% reporting geophagy, charcoal, and/or ash consumption. The most common substances consumed were raw cassava (n = 30, 36.6%), odowa, a chalky, soft rock-like earth (n = 21, 25.6%), and soil (n = 17, 20.7%). Geophagy, charcoal, and/or ash consumption was negatively associated with breastfeeding (OR = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.18-0.81), and amylophagy was associated with pregnancy (OR = 4.31, 95% CI: 1.24-14.96). Pica was more common within one of six study regions (OR = 3.64, 95% CI: 1.39-9.51). We found no evidence of an association between food insecurity and pica. Conclusion: Pica was a common behavior among women, and the prevalence underscores the need to uncover its dietary, environmental, and cultural etiologies.

Evaluation of a social network intervention on child feeding practices and caregiver knowledge.

Food insecurity and poor infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices contribute to undernutrition. The Kanyakla Nutrition Program was developed in rural Kenya to provide knowledge alongside social support for recommended IYCF practices. Utilizing a social network approach, the Kanyakla Nutrition Program trained community health workers (CHWs) to engage mothers, fathers, and grandparents in nutrition education and discussions about strategies to provide instrumental, emotional, and information support within their community. The 12-week programme included six sessions and was implemented on Mfangano Island, Kenya, in 2014-2015. We analysed intervention effects on (a) nutrition knowledge among community members or CHWs and (2) IYCF practices among children 1-3 years. Nutrition knowledge was assessed using a postintervention comparison among intervention (community, n = 43; CHW, n = 22) and comparison groups (community, n = 149; CHW, n = 64). We used a quasi-experimental design and difference-in-difference to assess IYCF indicators using dietary recall data from an ongoing cohort study among intervention participants (n = 48) with individuals living on Mfangano Island where the intervention was not implemented (n = 178) before the intervention, within 1 month postintervention, and 6 months postintervention. Findings showed no effect of the intervention on IYCF indicators (e.g., dietary diversity and meal frequency), and less than 15% of children met minimum acceptable diet criteria at any time point. However, knowledge and confidence among community members and CHWs were significantly higher 2 years postintervention. Thus, a social network approach had an enduring effect on nutrition knowledge, but no effects on improved IYCF practices.

Quantity and species of fish consumed shape breast-milk fatty acid concentrations around Lake Victoria, Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: Long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) found in breast milk are derived from dietary sources and critical for optimal infant development. We examined associations between fish consumption and concentrations of LCPUFA and essential n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in breast milk among mothers living around Lake Victoria. DESIGN: We used cross-sectional analyses of associations between recent fish consumption and breast-milk fatty acid concentrations. SETTING: The study was conducted around Lake Victoria on Mfangano Island, Kenya, where multiple fish species are key dietary components and also are widely exported. SUBJECTS: Breast-feeding mothers (n 60) provided breast-milk samples, anthropometric measurements and questionnaire responses. RESULTS: In the previous 3 d, 97 % of women consumed a mean of 178 (sd 111) g fish (~2 servings/3 d). Mean breast-milk concentrations included DHA (0·75 % of total fatty acids), EPA (0·16 %), α-linolenic acid (ALA; 0·54 %), arachidonic acid (AA; 0·44 %) and linoleic acid (LA; 12·7 %). Breast-milk DHA concentrations exceeded the global average of 0·32 % in fifty-nine of sixty samples. We found native cichlids (Cichlidae) and dagaa (Rastrineobola argentea) contributed high levels of DHA, EPA and AA to local diets. We also found evidence for associations between fish species consumed and breast-milk LCPUFA concentrations when controlling for intake of other fish species, maternal body mass, maternal age, child age and exclusive breast-feeding. CONCLUSIONS: The fatty acid composition of breast milk was influenced by the fish species consumed. Ensuring access to diverse fish and particularly inexpensive, locally available species, may be important for diet quality as well as infant growth and development.

Timing, intensity, and duration of household food insecurity are associated with early childhood development in Kenya.

This study examines the association between 3 dimensions of food insecurity (timing, intensity, and duration) and 3 domains of child development (gross motor, communication, and personal social). Longitudinal data from 303 households (n = 309 children) visited 9 times over 2 years were collected. Children in households experiencing severe food insecurity 3 months prior (timing) had significantly lower gross motor (ß -0.14; 95% CI [0.27, -0.0033]; p = .045), communication (ß -0.16; 95% CI [-0.30, -0.023]; p = .023), and personal social (ß -0.20; 95% CI [-0.33, -0.073]; p = .002) Z-scores, using lagged longitudinal linear models controlling for current food insecurity; these results were attenuated in full models, which included maternal education, household asset index, and child anthropometry. Children in households that experienced greater aggregate food insecurity over the past 2 years (intensity) had significantly lower gross motor (ß -0.047; 95% CI [-0.077, -0.018]; p = .002), communication (ß -0.042; 95% CI [-0.076, -0.0073]; p = .018), and personal social (ß -0.042; 95% CI [-0.074, -0.010]; p = .010) Z-scores; these results were also attenuated in full models. Children with more time exposed to food insecurity (duration) had significantly lower gross motor (ß -0.050; 95% CI [-0.087, -0.012]; p = .010), communication (ß -0.042; 95% CI [-0.086, 0.0013]; p = .057), and personal social (ß -0.037; 95% CI [-0.077, 0.0039]; p = .076) Z-scores; these results were no longer significant in full models. Our findings suggest that acute and chronic food insecurity and child development are related, but that many associations are attenuated with the inclusion of relevant covariates.

Human health alters the sustainability of fishing practices in East Africa.

Understanding feedbacks between human and environmental health is critical for the millions who cope with recurrent illness and rely directly on natural resources for sustenance. Although studies have examined how environmental degradation exacerbates infectious disease, the effects of human health on our use of the environment remains unexplored. Human illness is often tacitly assumed to reduce human impacts on the environment. By this logic, ill people reduce the time and effort that they put into extractive livelihoods and, thereby, their impact on natural resources. We followed 303 households living on Lake Victoria, Kenya over four time points to examine how illness influenced fishing. Using fixed effect conditional logit models to control for individual-level and time-invariant factors, we analyzed the effect of illness on fishing effort and methods. Illness among individuals who listed fishing as their primary occupation affected their participation in fishing. However, among active fishers, we found limited evidence that illness reduced fishing effort. Instead, ill fishers shifted their fishing methods. When ill, fishers were more likely to use methods that were illegal, destructive, and concentrated in inshore areas but required less travel and energy. Ill fishers were also less likely to fish using legal methods that are physically demanding, require travel to deep waters, and are considered more sustainable. By altering the physical capacity and outlook of fishers, human illness shifted their effort, their engagement with natural resources, and the sustainability of their actions. These findings show a previously unexplored pathway through which poor human health may negatively impact the environment.

Around the Table: Food Insecurity, Socioeconomic Status, and Instrumental Social Support among Women Living in a Rural Kenyan Island Community.

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship among socioeconomic status, social support, and food insecurity in a rural Kenyan island community. A cross-sectional random sample of 111 female heads of households representing 583 household members were surveyed in Mfangano Island, Kenya from August to October 2010 using adaptations of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale and the Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey. In multiple linear regression models, less instrumental social support, defined as concrete direct ways people help others (B = -0.81; 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.45 to -0.17), and decreased ownership scale based on owning material assets (B = -2.93; 95% CI -4.99 to -0.86) were significantly associated with increased food insecurity, controlling for age, education, marital status, and household size. Social support interventions geared at group capacity and resilience may be crucial adjuncts to improve and maintain the long term food security and health of persons living in low-resource regions.