Protective role of exercise on breast cancer-related osteoporosis in women undergoing aromatase inhibitors: A narrative review.

Hormone therapy following surgery reduces the risk of breast cancer (BC) recurrence and progression of hormone-sensitive BC, especially in postmenopausal women. Despite the antitumor efficacy of hormone therapy, particularly of aromatase inhibitors, they cause long-term side effects, mainly bone density reduction. Exercise can slow the rate of bone loss, which reduces the risk of fractures from osteoporosis, and could be an integrative treatment able to mitigate the BC treatment side effects positively impacting bone health. This narrative review aims to discuss studies on the effect of exercise on bone health in BC women undergoing aromatase inhibitors, highlighting the possible role of exercise as complementary to conventional therapies. Additionally, according to the literature revision, exercise practical applications to improve bone health in these patients are summarized.

Concurrent and Predictive Validity of an Exercise-Specific Scale for the Perception of Velocity in the Back Squat.

BACKGROUND: the aim of the study was to develop and validate a specific perception velocity scale for the Back Squat exercise to discriminate the velocity of each repetition during a set. METHODS: 31 resistance trained participants completed 3 evaluation sessions, consisting of 3 blinded loads (light, medium, heavy). For each repetition, barbell mean velocity (Vr) was measured with a linear position transducer while perceived velocity (Vp) was reported using the Squat Perception of Velocity (PV) Scale. RESULTS: Pearson correlation coefficients (r) showed very high values for each intensity in the 3 different days (range r = 0.73-0.83) and practically perfect correlation for all loads (range r = 0.97-0.98). The simple linear regression analysis between Vp and Vr revealed values ranging from R2 = 0.53 to R2 = 0.69 in the 3 intensities and values ranging from R2 = 0.95 to R2 = 0.97 considering all loads. The reliability (ICC2.1, SEM) of Vp was tested for light (0.85, 0.03), medium (0.90, 0.03) and heavy loads (0.86, 0.03) and for all loads (0.99, 0.11). The delta score (ds = Vp - Vr) showed higher accuracy of the PV at heavy loads. CONCLUSIONS: these results show that the PV Squat Scale is a valid and reliable tool that can be used to accurately quantify exercise intensity.

How to Investigate the Effect of Music on Breathing during Exercise: Methodology and Tools.

Music is an invaluable tool to improve affective valence during exercise, with the potential contribution of a mechanism called rhythmic entrainment. However, several methodological limitations impair our current understanding of the effect of music on relevant psychophysiological responses to exercise, including breathing variables. This study presents conceptual, methodological, and operational insight favoring the investigation of the effect of music on breathing during exercise. Three tools were developed for the quantification of the presence, degree, and magnitude of music-locomotor, locomotor-breathing, and music-breathing entrainment. The occurrence of entrainment was assessed during 30 min of moderate cycling exercise performed either when listening to music or not, and was complemented by the recording of relevant psychophysiological and mechanical variables. Respiratory frequency and expiratory time were among the physiological variables that were affected to a greater extent by music during exercise, and a significant (p < 0.05) music-breathing entrainment was found in all 12 participants. These findings suggest the importance of evaluating the effect of music on breathing responses to exercise, with potential implications for exercise prescription and adherence, and for the development of wearable devices simultaneously measuring music, locomotor, and breathing signals.

Effect of Online Home-Based Training on Functional Capacity and Strength in Two CKD Patients: A Case Study.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a clinical condition characterized by the loss of kidney function over time, as well as several complications affecting gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal systems. Physical exercise seems to induce positive adaptations in CKD patients, without side effects. Usually, these patients show a reduced physical activity and physical performance. The aim of this case-report was to evaluate the effects of an online training protocol on functional capacity and on muscle mass, in CKD stage III patients. Methods: Two CKD (stage III according to KDIGO guidelines) participants (1 female, Patient A; 1 male, Patient B) were enrolled and they performed an online tailored-supervised combined training lasting 12 weeks, including multi-joint strength exercises using TheraBand and an aerobic session at 65-70% of the patients' heart rate reserve. Results: Both patients showed an improving trend on functional capacity (6 min walking test: Patient A = +3%; Patient B = +5.3%) and on strength of the upper arms (handgrip strength test-right: Patient A = +13.4%; Patient B = +19.1%; handgrip strength test-left: Patient A = +42.8%; Patient B= +12.9%), as well as a reduction in inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers. The protocol was feasible, and no side effects were evidenced. These case studies suggest that the online combined training can produce beneficial effects in CKD patients under conservative therapy, by reducing the CKD-related complications and improving the adherence to exercise of this population of patients, overcoming logistic barriers such as transportation, availability of facilities, and working and personal-life schedule.

Exploratory Analysis in the Differences in Blood Serum and Seminal Plasma of Adipose-Tissue Related Peptides in Obese and Non-Obese Men and Their Correlations With Semen Parameters.

Objectives: Evaluating the relationship between circulating metabolic biomarkers and semen parameters in obese, overweight and normal-weight patients. Methods: Patients were recruited at the "Andrology and Pathophysiology of Reproduction Unit", in Santa Maria Goretti Hospital. Divided into three groups were 98 participants (obese, overweight and normal-weight patients) according to BMI and were analyzed for three adipokines and six hormone peptides in blood serum and seminal plasma using Luminex assay. Standard semen analysis was performed for ejaculate volume, sperm concentration, total sperm count, motility, morphology and leukocytes. Results: In all groups of subjects, we observed a higher concentration of blood serum c-peptide, GIP, PAI-1, leptin, ghrelin and GLP-1 in comparison to seminal plasma; differently, higher levels in seminal plasma were observed for insulin and visfatin. In comparison to the non-obese subjects, obese subjects showed a higher blood serum concentration of c-peptide, GLP-1, GIP and leptin and a higher concentration of seminal plasma of GIP and insulin. Total sperm count, progressive motility, motility, and atypical forms directly correlated with PAI-1 and visfatin, whereas GLP-1 directly correlated only with total progressive motility. Conclusion: Obese men showed a different pattern of blood serum and seminal plasma adipokines and hormone peptides concentrations in comparison to normal-weight men. Furthermore, these molecules correlated with functional seminal parameters. Our findings support the option to consider these molecules as new biomarkers and pharmacological targets for a new therapeutic approach in male infertility. However, further studies identifying other potential biomarkers of male infertility with important clinical implication and characterizing their mechanisms of action are mandatory.

The Stress of Competing: Cortisol and Amylase Response to Training and Competition.

TeamGym is a popular form of gymnastics, including tumbling (Tu), trampette (Tr) and floor exercises (F) characterized by intensive practice placing high levels of stress on athletes. The aim of the study was to investigate athletes' stress-related changes during TeamGym training and competition, considering hormonal and enzymatic responses (i.e., salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase). Ten (5 males and 5 females) TeamGym athletes (age: 22-28 y) were tested twice at the same time before training and competition; furthermore, for excluding circadian effect on hormonal and enzymatic responses, they were tested at the same time during a rest day. Alpha-amylase and cortisol were measured 15 min before the beginning of exercise, after each gymnastic equipment performance, and after thirty minutes from the end of the performance. Factorial ANOVA with repeated measures was used to verify differences between training and competition (p < 0.05). Competition elicited higher values of alpha-amylase than training (p ranging from 0.001 to 0.019) and rest (p ranging from 0.001 to 0.019). Cortisol showed no exercise induced increase, and its concentrations were higher prior to training compared to competition. TeamGym responses confirm other sports findings in stating that competition elicits higher stress response than training and suggest that salivary alpha-amylase is a more sensitive marker than cortisol to psychophysiological stress also in gymnastics intermittent performance.

Timing of Muscle Activation Is Altered During Single-Leg Landing Tasks After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction at the Time of Return to Sport.

OBJECTIVES: It is well known that alterations in landing mechanics persist for years after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACL-R). Nevertheless, existing literature is controversial in reporting successful or unsuccessful recovery of prelanding muscle activation timing after ACL-R. The study aimed at comparing myoelectric and kinematic patterns during landing tasks between ACL-R and healthy subjects. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Institutional research laboratory. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION: Fifteen male athletes after ACL-R using patellar tendon and 11 using hamstrings autograft at the time of return to sport were recruited. Fifteen healthy athletes served as control group. Participants performed 4 different single-leg landing tasks arriving onto a force plate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Electromyographic (EMG) activity of knee extensors and flexors, normalized vertical ground reaction force (vGRF), and knee angular displacement were recorded. RESULTS: In all the tasks, preimpact EMG duration was longer in ACL-R (112 ± 28 ms in the knee extensors; 200 ± 34 ms in the knee flexors) compared with healthy participants (74 ± 19 ms in the knee extensors; 153 ± 29 ms in the knee flexors; P < 0.05). Initial contact (IC) and maximum postimpact knee angle were lower in ACL-R (9 ± 7 degrees at IC; 39 ± 12 degrees at maximum flexion) compared with healthy participants (17 ± 9 degrees at IC; 52 ± 15 degrees at maximum flexion; P < 0.05). Normalized vGRF was higher in ACL-R compared with healthy participants (3.4 ± 0.5 and 2.7 ± 0.6; P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: At the time of return to sport, ACL-R subjects showed altered motor control strategies of single-leg landings. These alterations may lead to uncoordinated movement, hence increasing the risk of reinjury.

The Effects of Concurrent Resistance and Aerobic Exercise Training on Functional Status in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis.

Loss of balance and walking ability are two of the primary impairments in multiple sclerosis (MS), which leads to loss of autonomy, increased fatigue perception, and disease severity in patients. Physical activity has been shown to ameliorate MS functional impairments, but there is limited evidence of synergistic efficacy of exercise training interventions that have both a resistance and aerobic focus in these patients. We evaluated the effect of a 12-wk combined training intervention (resistance and aerobic exercise) on balance, walking ability, fatigue perception, quality of life, and severity of disease in patients with MS. The combined training was well tolerated by the patients and improved the quality of life of the patients as also reflected in the improvement in walking and balance ability as well as reduced depression, fatigue, and severity of disease. The results of this study confirm the beneficial effects of physical activity in patients with MS and support the use of a combination of resistance and aerobic exercise training to achieve functional and psychological therapeutic outcomes.

Is the Bike Segment of Modern Olympic Triathlon More a Transition towards Running in Males than It Is in Females?

In 2009, the International Triathlon Union created a new triathlon race format: The World Triathlon Series (WTS), for which only athletes with a top 100 world ranking are eligible. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the influence of the three disciplines on performance within all the WTS Olympic distance races within two Olympic cycles, and to determine whether their relative contribution changed over the years. Methods: For each of a total of 44 races, final race time and position as well as split times (and positions), and summed time (and position) at each point of the race were collected and included in the analysis. Athletes were divided into 4 groups according to their final race placing (G1: 1st⁻3rd place; G2: 4⁻8th place; G3: 8⁻16th place and G4: ≥17th place). Two-way multivariate ANOVAs were conducted to compare the main effects of years and rank groups. For females, there were significant differences in the swim and bike segment only between G4 and the other groups (p range from 0.001⁻0.029), whilst for the run segment each group differed significantly from each other (p < 0.001). For males, there were significant differences in swim only between G4 and the other groups (p range from 0.001⁻0.039), whilst for the running segment each group differed significantly from the others (p < 0.001). Although we found running to be the segment where there were significant differences between performance groups, it is apparently important for overall success that a good runner be positioned with the first cycling pack. However, bike splits were not different between either of the four male groups or between the first 3 groups of the females. At this very high level of performance, at least in the males, the bike leg seems to be a smooth transition towards running.

The use of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) in the treatment of gastrocnemius strains: a retrospective observational study.

The aim of the present retrospective observational study was to evaluate the time of functional recovery following a specific combined therapeutic approach characterized by an active exercise therapy carried out immediately after Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections for the treatment of the muscular lesion of the distal musculotendinous junction of the gastrocnemius medial head.Medical records of 31 subjects treated with three PRP intra-lesional ultrasound guided injections and 30 patients treated with the standard therapeutic approach (control group) were analyzed. Both groups followed the same rehabilitation therapy. Patients in the control group were able to start active exercise with a significant delay when compared to the PRP treated subjects: 17 ± 7.2 days and 9 ± 3.8 days (p = 0.0001), respectively. This delay was mainly due to the persistence of pain in the subjects in the control group. The time necessary to return to walk without pain was significantly shorter in the PRP treated group: 24.27 ± 12.36 days versus 52.4 ± 20.03 days in the control group (p < 0.001) as well as the time needed to fully return to practice the previous sport activity: 53.33 ± 27.74 days versus 119.3 ± 43.87 days in the control group (p < 0.001).The present study showed that ultrasound guided delivery of PRP into the site of muscle injury has to be considered a valid therapeutic approach with the potentiality of significantly reduce time and costs for reaching a complete functional recovery.

Clinical significance of ST depression at exercise stress testing in competitive athletes: usefulness of coronary CT during screening.

BACKGROUND: Congenital coronary anomalies (CCAs) and coronary artery disease (CAD) arouse intense scientific and clinical interest in sports medicine and sports cardiology medical communities because of their potential to trigger sudden cardiac death (SCD) in athletes. Exercise stress testing represent the first instrumental assessment to evaluate electrocardiographic changes during effort. Coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) is an advanced accurate noninvasive imaging modality for excluding CAD and abnormalities of origin and course of coronary vessels. The aim of this study is to investigate with CCTA the clinical significance of ST depression suggestive for myocardial ischemia during exercise stress testing in athletes and to determine the prevalence of CAD and/or CCAs. METHODS: Sixty-five consecutive athletes showing electrocardiographic findings positive or equivocal for myocardial ischemia on exercise stress testing during pre-participation screening were investigated with CCTA. RESULTS: Among the 65 athletes investigated, 36 showed Myocardial Bridge (MB), one showed an anomalous coronary origin and seven showed CAD. Among 36 athletes with MB, 4 were associated with mild coronary artery stenosis. Three athletes with CAD needed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery. CONCLUSIONS: In competitive athletes even with excellent workload capacities, in absence of cardiomyopathy, the presence of ischemic electrocardiographic abnormalities could be mainly determined by a coronary congenital or acquired pathology. In this population CCTA is a useful imaging modality of choice for the risk stratification and for the diagnostic process, to allow eligible athletes to compete and to follow-up subjects requiring medical surveillance.

Effectiveness of a new cervical pillow on pain and sleep quality in recreational athletes with chronic mechanical neck pain: a preliminary comparative study.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this intervention study was to determine the effects of a new experimental cervical pillow, on symptomatic adults affected by chronic mechanical neck pain. METHODS: Twelve recreational athletes of both sexes (mean age 40.5 years; range 35-55), affected by grade II chronic mechanical neck pain, were evaluated with a daily diary type of self-report questionnaire, which incorporated an 11-point Numerical Rating Pain Scale, to collect the primary outcome measures of pre- and post-sleep neck pain and with the Neck Pain Disability Scale. Tympanic temperature, heart rate (HR) variability continuous monitoring during sleep, overnight pillow comfort and sleep quality were assessed. RESULTS: Average weekly scores in overall questionnaires, tympanic temperature and the HR low frequency (LF) / high frequency (HF) ratio were significantly lower (P<0.05) after the use of the DM2 pillow than the own pillow. The 80% of participants considered the DM2 "perfectly comfortable" and reported a "good" quality of sleep lying over it. CONCLUSIONS: The use of an appropriate pillow is a determinant factor in relieving neck pain, improving LF/HF ratio and enhancing-vagal activity, promoting deeper stages during the sleep. The shape of this pillow maintains an appropriate cervical curvature, reduces intra-disc pressure allowing a better distribution of loads between cervical discs. The round shaped portion of the pillow, facilitates breathing and avoids the narrowing of the airway due to the incorrect position during the sleep. The peculiar material of the DM2 pillow, contributed to lower brain temperature promoting dry heat loss from the head to the pillow, reducing sweating.

Therapeutic horseback riding in breast cancer survivors: a pilot study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the physiologic and psychological effects of an equine-assisted therapy protocol (EAT) in breast cancer survivors. METHODS: Twenty women (mean age, 45.61±2.71 years) whose breast cancer treatment had concluded at least 6 months previously underwent a screening protocol to certify their eligibility to participate in noncompetitive sports. The patients were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n=10) or a control group (n=10). Intervention patients participated in a 16-week EAT protocol consisting of 2 hours of activity per week. All patients were tested before and after the intervention for maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), fat mass percentage, total body water percentage, strength of principal muscular groups (measured on five weight-lifting machines [leg press, leg extension, leg curl, shoulder press, vertical traction]), and quality of life using the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Fatigue questionnaire (FACIT-F). RESULTS: After intervention, the intervention group showed an improvement in VO2max (28.29%; p<.001), a decrease in fat mass percentage (change, -7.73%; p<0.002), an increase in total body water percentage (6.90%; p=0.027), and an increase in strength (leg press, 17.75% [p=0.018]; leg extension, 21.55% [p=0.005]; leg curl, 26.04% [p<0.001]; shoulder press, 49.72% [p=0.003]; vertical traction, 19.27% [p=0.002]). Furthermore, the increase in the three FACIT-F scores (FACIT-F trial outcome: 9.29% [p=0.010]; Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General total score, 14.80% [p=0.022]; FACIT-F total score, 11.48% [p=0.004]) showed an increase in quality of life. No significant changes for any variable were found for the control group. CONCLUSIONS: EAT had positive effects on both physiologic and psychological measures, enhancing quality of life of breast cancer survivors. RESULTS suggest a new method for rehabilitation intervention strategies after cancer in a nonmedical environment.

Effect of Court Dimensions on Players' External and Internal Load during Small-Sided Handball Games.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of three different court dimensions on the internal and external load during small-sided handball games. Six male amateur handball players took part in this study and participated in three different 8-min 3vs3 (plus goalkeepers) small-sided handball games (each repeated twice). The three court dimensions were 12×24m, 30×15m and 32×16m. Through Global Positioning System devices (SPI pro elite 15Hz, GPSports) and video analysis, the following parameters were recorded: cyclic and acyclic movements (distance covered and number of technical actions executed), heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Total distance travelled increased with court dimensions (885.2m ± 66.6m in 24×12m; 980.0m ± 73.4m in 30×15m; 1095.0m ± 112.9m in 32×16m, p < 0.05). The analysis of distance covered in the four speed zones (0-1.4 m·s(-1); 1.4-3.4 m·s(-1); 3.4-5.2 m·s(-1); >5.2 m·s(-1)) highlighted substantial differences: playing with the 30×15m court in comparison to the 24×12m, the players covered less distance in the first speed zone (p = 0.012; ES = 0.70) and more distance in the second (p = 0.049; ES = 0.73) and third (p = 0.012; ES = 0.51) speed zones. Statistical differences were also found between the 24×12m and 32×16m courts: the players covered more distance in the second and third speed zones (p = 0.013, ES = 0.76; p = 0.023 ES = 0.69) with the 32×16m court in comparison to the 24×12m. There was no significant effect of court dimensions on the technical parameters (number of team actions, passes, piston movements toward goal and defensive activities), the number of specific handball jumps and changes of direction, and the time spent in the different heart rate zones. Considering the average data of all the experimental conditions together (24×12m, 30×15m, 32×16m), a pronounced statistical difference was highlighted between the values in first two HR zones and the last two (p < 0.05; large ES). The rating of perceived exertion was significantly higher during the drill with the 32×16m court compared with the 24×12m one (p < 0.05; ES = 2.34). Our findings indicate that changing court dimensions during small-sided handball games can be used to manipulate both external and internal loads on the players. Key pointsTo cover the specific game demands, more specific training methodologies have been developed in many sport games.Specific game exercises may provide a useful conditioning stimulus, together with technical and tactical training components.Changing court dimensions during small-sided handball games can be used to manipulate both external and internal loads on the players.The high ratio of cyclic activity per minute and the high HR values recorded during SSHGs make this type of drills extremely useful for aerobic power training.

Technical-tactical analysis of youth olympic taekwondo combat.

The purpose of this study was to define the technical and tactical profiles of official youth taekwondo competitions played under the most recent rules of the International Taekwondo Federation. Tactical actions (i.e., attack, defense, and block), technical executions (from 1- to 4-point scores), kicking legs (i.e., front/rear and right/left), and overall technical effectiveness were investigated in relation to match outcome of semifinal and final competitions (n = 50) of youth (aged 13-14 years) black belt athletes during the Italian Taekwondo Cadet Championship. Differences (p < 0.001) were found among all action typologies (Attack: 50.9 ± 2.2%; Defense: 27.7 ± 1.5%; Block: 21.3 ± 1.6%), with winners showing fewer (p = 0.005) offensive actions and more (p = 0.001) defensive actions with respect to non-winners. Independently from match outcome, technical exchanges showed differences (p < 0.001) for technical executions. Winners resulted more efficient (p < 0.001) for both technical and tactical variables. In general, these findings showed that Cadets tend to adopt an offensive strategy. In considering that the adoption of the new electronic system requires athletes to execute correct technical actions to have a score assigned, coaches should emphasize the effectiveness of scoring techniques and help athletes to effectively improve their defense and counterattack capabilities.

Time-motion analysis of youth Olympic Taekwondo combats.

This study aimed to analyze the time-motion structure of combat phases (fighting: F, nonfighting: NF, and stoppage time: ST) during semifinal and final matches (three 1.5-minute rounds, with 1-minute rest in between) of the 2010 Italian Taekwondo Cadet (age 13-14 years) Championship (adolescent boys, n = 40; adolescent girls, n = 28) in relation to gender (adolescent boys and girls) and grouped weight division (light, middle, and heavy) of athletes. Regardless of gender, grouped weight division, round, and tournament stage, differences (p < 0.001, effect size range: 1.92-3.02) emerged for frequency of occurrence of combat phases (F: 42.4 ± 0.5%; NF: 44.5 ± 0.7%; ST: 13.1 ± 0.9%) and their mean duration (F: 2.8 ± 1.0 seconds; NF: 6.5 ± 1.8 seconds; ST: 13.7 ± 5.0 seconds). A 1:2 F to NF ratio was found, whereas a 1:3 ratio emerged when F was considered in relation to the sum of NF and ST. During F phase, 5 ± 1 tactical movements and 4 ± 1 technical exchanges were performed, lasting 0.6 ± 0.1 seconds and 0.7 ± 0.1 seconds, respectively. These findings mirrored the intermittent nature of youth combat, characterized by a high occurrence of tactical movements and technical exchanges during F phase. The lack of differences for round and tournament stages indicates a limited tactical capability of young athletes in adopting specific match strategies, independently from gender and weight divisions of the athletes. To prepare young athletes to handle the technical-tactical demands of the match, coaches could include 7-9 circuit stations of specific taekwondo sequences of attack and counter attack techniques.

Evaluation of change-of-direction movements in young rugby players.

The evaluation of change-of-direction (COD) performance is strongly focused on the time spent to perform the test trials, while much less is known about the technical execution adopted during the COD movements. Thus, the purposes of this study were to evaluate (1) the relationship between straight- and COD-sprint tests and (2) the technical execution of COD movements in relation to different age categories of young rugby players. Young rugby players (N = 157, age range 8-19 y) completed a test battery composed of a 15-m straight-sprint test (15SS) and a 15-m sprint test performed with 2 changes of direction (15COD). Significant differences were detected between age categories for both tests. Significant correlations were found between 15SS and 15COD. The analysis of the technical execution of the 15COD test showed differences between age categories, with a prevalence of rounded turns up to the U15 category. These findings confirmed the relationship between straight and COD abilities in young male rugby players. Moreover, the new approach introduced by this study, based on the analysis of COD technical execution, revealed that this performance could be conditioned by the age and mastery level of the players.

Physiological versus psychological evaluation in taekwondo elite athletes.

PURPOSE: To anticipate outstanding athletic outcomes, the selection process of elite athletes simultaneously considers psychophysiological and technical parameters. This study aimed to investigate whether selected and nonselected athletes for the Italian national taekwondo team could be discriminated by means of sport specific performances and psychophysiological responses to training. PARTICIPANTS: 5 established Italian national athletes and 20 elite Italian taekwondo black belt athletes (9 women, 16 men; age 23.0 ± 3.1 y; body mass 67.0 ± 12.1 kg). METHODS: To update the Italian national-team roster, the 20 elite athletes participated in a 1-wk selection camp (7 training sessions). Selected athletes (n = 10) joined established national athletes during the following 3-wk national training period (7 training sessions/wk). During the 1-wk selection camp, differences (P < .05) between selected and nonselected athletes in performances, heart-rate responses, blood lactate accumulation [La], subjective ratings of perceived exertion (session RPE), and mood were examined. During the 3-wk national training period, differences (P < .05) in mood between selected and established national athletes were investigated. RESULTS: With respect to nonselected athletes, selected athletes responded better to training in terms of session RPE (P = .047) and [La] (P = .046). No difference in performance and mood between subgroups emerged. After the 3-wk national training period, differences (P = .035) emerged for confusion, with decreases in the established national athletes and increases for recently selected athletes. CONCLUSIONS: Session RPE and [La] seem to be more effective than psychological measures in discriminating between elite taekwondo athletes. Evaluation of mood could be effective in monitoring athletes' response to national training.

Technical and tactical analysis of youth taekwondo performance.

This study aimed to analyze the technical and tactical aspects of young athletes during official taekwondo competitions. Fifty-nine youth taekwondo athletes (43 boys and 16 girls; age range: 10-12 years; weight category range: <24 to >59 kg) with at least 2 years of taekwondo training consisting of three 90-minute training sessions for 3 d·wk⁻¹ participated in this study. Thirty-seven matches (three 1-minute rounds, with 1-minute rest in between) were analyzed to verify the differences (p ≤ 0.05) in offensive and defensive actions in relation to gender (male, female), match outcome (winners, nonwinners), kicking leg (front, rear), and round (first, second, third). No difference emerged for gender and match outcome. With respect to defensive actions (8.4 ± 12.0%), youth athletes engaged more frequently (p < 0.0001) in offensive actions (91.6 ± 12.0%), which showed a significant decrease (p < 0.016) from the first round (42.3 ± 21.8%) to the second (33.1 ± 14.8%) and third (24.5 ± 16.0%) ones. Kicks performed with the rear leg (94.4 ± 7.8%) occurred more frequently (p < 0.0001) than those performed with the front leg (5.6 ± 7.8%). In considering that a high level of coordination is required to perform front-leg kicks and defensive actions necessitate a high level of tactical skills, these findings might indicate a not-yet complete attainment of fundamental coordinative capabilities in 10- to 12-year-old athletes, independently of match outcome. To enhance coordination capabilities in youth athletes, coaches are recommended to structure their training including skill-ability and sport-ability drills.