Association Between Stimulant Treatment and Substance Use Through Adolescence Into Early Adulthood.

Importance: Possible associations between stimulant treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and subsequent substance use remain debated and clinically relevant. Objective: To assess the association of stimulant treatment of ADHD with subsequent substance use using the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (MTA), which provides a unique opportunity to test this association while addressing methodologic complexities (principally, multiple dynamic confounding variables). Design, Setting, and Participants: MTA was a multisite study initiated at 6 sites in the US and 1 in Canada as a 14-month randomized clinical trial of medication and behavior therapy for ADHD but transitioned to a longitudinal observational study. Participants were recruited between 1994 and 1996. Multi-informant assessments included comprehensively assessed demographic, clinical (including substance use), and treatment (including stimulant treatment) variables. Children aged 7 to 9 years with rigorously diagnosed DSM-IV combined-type ADHD were repeatedly assessed until a mean age of 25 years. Analysis took place between April 2018 and February 2023. Exposure: Stimulant treatment of ADHD was measured prospectively from baseline for 16 years (10 assessments) initially using parent report followed by young adult report. Main Outcomes and Measures: Frequency of heavy drinking, marijuana use, daily cigarette smoking, and other substance use were confidentially self-reported with a standardized substance use questionnaire. Results: A total of 579 children (mean [SD] age at baseline, 8.5 [0.8] years; 465 [80%] male) were analyzed. Generalized multilevel linear models showed no evidence that current (B [SE] range, -0.62 [0.55] to 0.34 [0.47]) or prior stimulant treatment (B [SE] range, -0.06 [0.26] to 0.70 [0.37]) or their interaction (B [SE] range, -0.49 [0.70] to 0.86 [0.68]) were associated with substance use after adjusting for developmental trends in substance use and age. Marginal structural models adjusting for dynamic confounding by demographic, clinical, and familial factors revealed no evidence that more years of stimulant treatment (B [SE] range, -0.003 [0.01] to 0.04 [0.02]) or continuous, uninterrupted stimulant treatment (B [SE] range, -0.25 [0.33] to -0.03 [0.10]) were associated with adulthood substance use. Findings were the same for substance use disorder as outcome. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found no evidence that stimulant treatment was associated with increased or decreased risk for later frequent use of alcohol, marijuana, cigarette smoking, or other substances used for adolescents and young adults with childhood ADHD. These findings do not appear to result from other factors that might drive treatment over time and findings held even after considering opposing age-related trends in stimulant treatment and substance use.

Lessons Learned in Centering Youth Voices in HIV Prevention: The Adolescent Health Working Group.

BACKGROUND: There remains critical need for community-based approaches to HIV prevention which center youth voices and needs. OBJECTIVES: We established an adolescent health working group (AHWG) to convene youth, parents, providers, and advocates in agenda-setting for interventions to increase pre-exposure prophylaxis uptake in Durham. METHODS: Our three study phases included six AHWG meetings from 2019 to 2020, youth-only meetings guided by a participatory engagement framework (Youth Generate and Organize), and interviews (n=13) and surveys with youth in the community (N=87). We also developed materials such as an AHWG mission statement, a list of themes and informational needs, and documented strategies about pivoting the project during the onset of the COVID-19 global pandemic.Lessons Learned/Conclusions: Engaging adults in youth-focused HIV prevention differs greatly to engaging youth themselves. Creating spaces to promote adolescent sexual Health requires trust building, breaking down sensitivities and stigma to, and flexibility to navigate both virtual and in-person spaces to do so.

Parental perspectives on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatments for children.

This study investigated parental perspectives and experiences on the evaluation and treatment process associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Five hundred sixty-eight parents of youth 2-28 years-old (M = 9.37; SD = 4.11) diagnosed with ADHD responded to a 14-item online survey about their child's diagnosis and treatment. Parents reported that they had tried an average of 4.49 interventions (SD = 2.63). Parents further shared factors in treatment selection, most helpful parenting strategies, and preferences for types of treatments and treatment targets. A majority of parents reported incorporating many non-traditional strategies (e.g., exercise, healthy eating, outdoor activities) with goals of improving their child's coping skills, study habits, and anger management. The findings show that treatment choices were often selected based on trust in the provider, research support, and the child's preference. Given parental preferences for non-traditional strategies, treatment development efforts should consider these strategies as a component of a broader multimodal treatment approach to ADHD.

Feasibility, Acceptability, and Preliminary Efficacy of a Gamified Mobile Health Contingency Management Intervention for PrEP Adherence Among Black MSM.

Oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is effective at preventing HIV. However, low adherence is common and undermines these protective effects. This is particularly relevant for groups with disproportionately higher rates of HIV, including Black men who have sex with men (MSM). The current study tested the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of a gamified mobile health contingency management intervention for PrEP adherence-called mSMART (Mobile App-Based Personalized Solutions for Medication Adherence of Rx Pill Tool). Fifteen Black MSM already prescribed PrEP in the community completed baseline and follow-up assessments separated by 8 weeks of using mSMART. Regarding feasibility, there was no study attrition, no mSMART functional difficulties that significantly interfered with use, and a mean rate of 82% daily mSMART use. Acceptability ratings were in the moderately to extremely satisfied range for factors such as willingness to recommend mSMART to others and user-friendliness, and in the low range for ratings on difficulty learning how to use mSMART. Scores on a system usability measure were in the acceptable range for 73% of the sample. Qualitative analysis of follow-up interviews identified individual components of mSMART that could be modified in future iterations to make it more engaging. PrEP composite adherence scores from biomarkers indicated an improvement from baseline to follow-up with a medium effect size, as well as a decrease in the number of perceived barriers to medication adherence. Findings indicate a future efficacy trial is needed to examine the effects of this gamified mobile health contingency management intervention on PrEP adherence.

"My mom calls it Annaland": A Qualitative Study of Phenomenology, Daily Life Impacts, and Treatment Considerations of Sluggish Cognitive Tempo.

Objective: To conduct qualitative analysis of interviews to understand phenomenology, daily life impact, and treatment considerations of sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) behaviors in children and adolescents. Method: Youth with elevated SCT symptoms (N = 15, ages 9-16 years) and their parents completed interviews focused on their perception and daily life impact of SCT behaviors. Parents were also asked about intervention targets. Results: Parents and youth had both negative and positive perceptions of SCT, with SCT fostering creativity/imagination and a break from stressors while also negatively impacting daily functioning. The domains most frequently selected by parents as SCT intervention targets were academics, emotions, mind wandering, morning routines, and self-esteem. Conclusion: Children and their parents share negative and positive views of SCT behaviors, while also detailing specific ways that SCT negatively impacts day-to-day functioning. This study offers insights into possible intervention targets as provided by youth and parents directly impacted by SCT.

Using Participatory Methods to Assess PrEP Interest and Uptake Among Young People Living in the Southeastern US: A Mixed Methods Assessment.

Adolescents and young adults (AYA; 13-24 years-old) comprise 22% of new HIV infections in the United States (US), most of whom live in the South. We used the situated-Information, Motivation, Behavioral skills (sIMB) model to identify priorities for intervention on multi-level factors that influence HIV preventive care among Black AYA in Durham, North Carolina. We conducted two participatory workshops (ages 13-17, N = 6; ages 18-24, N = 7) to engage youth about how to discuss HIV. We also assessed sIMB constructs from a separate quantitative sample of youth to contextualize the workshop findings (N = 80). HIV knowledge was low overall, but lower among younger Black AYA, suggesting a need for comprehensive sexual education. Trusted adults provided sexual health information, motivation for health maintenance, and behavioral skills support. HIV prevention interventions should provide comprehensive sexual health education to Black AYA, be age-specific, and include social supporters like parents, teachers, and community members.

Refraining from use diminishes cannabis-associated epigenetic changes in human sperm.

Cannabis use alters sperm DNA methylation, but the potential reversibility of these changes is unknown. Semen samples from cannabis users and non-user controls were collected at baseline and again following a 77-day period of cannabis abstinence (one spermatogenic cycle). Users and controls did not significantly differ by demographics or semen analyses. Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing identified 163 CpG sites with significantly different DNA methylation in sperm between groups (P < 2.94 × 10-9). Genes associated with altered CpG sites were enriched with those involved in development, including cardiogenesis and neurodevelopment. Many of the differences in sperm DNA methylation between groups were diminished after cannabis abstinence. These results indicate that sustained cannabis abstinence significantly reduces the number of sperm showing cannabis-associated alterations at genes important for early development.

Awareness and acceptability of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among students at two historically Black universities (HBCU): a cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Despite young African American adults (ages 18-24) being among the highest risk groups for HIV infection, little is known about their awareness of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) - a once daily pill shown to be > 90% effective in preventing HIV. To explore awareness and acceptability of PrEP among college students in this demographic, we conducted a survey of attendees at two large historically Black universities (HBCU) in North Carolina. METHODS: We administered a 14-item questionnaire to students at two HBCUs in North Carolina between February and April 2018. Questions were formatted in a yes/no or multiple choice format. Questionnaire items specifically addressed PrEP awareness and acceptability. Surveys were administered to students at a campus health fair and while transiting the campus student union via iPad. Response to all questions was optional. We fit a logistic regression model to determine association of key demographic determinants with PrEP acceptability and awareness. Statistical analyses were conducted using SAS 9.4 (SAS, Cary, NC). RESULTS: Overall, 210 students participated in the survey, of which 60 completed all survey items as presented. The survey cohort was 75% female, 89% heterosexual and 39% freshmen. The mean age of respondents was 19.8 years (SD: 1.8). Fifty-two percent of survey respondents reported that they were aware of PrEP prior to the time of survey administration. Only 3% of respondents reported that they were on PrEP. The most common sources of information on PrEP were campus health services (24%) and non-social media advertising (15%). Of respondents who were aware of PrEP, 61% reported that they had heard about in the 6 months prior to survey administration, while only 19% say they were aware of it for more than a year. Regarding acceptability of PrEP, 58% of respondents reported that they would take a once a day pill for HIV if they were at risk. Our logistic regression analysis found no statistically significant associations between key demographic factors and PrEP awareness. However, persons who perceived themselves to be at risk for HIV acquisition were more likely to find once daily oral PrEP (relative risk 2.66 (95% CI 1.31-5.42)) as an acceptable prevention strategy than the rest of the survey cohort. CONCLUSIONS: African American HBCU students are becoming aware of PrEP, and generally perceive the intervention as acceptable and worth consideration.

Health-related quality of life in Iranian adolescents: a psychometric evaluation of the self-report form of the PedsQL 4.0 and an investigation of gender and age differences.

BACKGROUND: Research on the psychometric properties of the Persian self-report form of the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory Version 4.0 (PedsQL 4.0) in adolescents has several gaps (e.g., convergent validity) that limit its clinical application and therefore the cross-cultural impact of this measure. This study aimed at investigating the psychometric properties of the PedsQL 4.0 and the effects of gender and age on quality of life in Iranian adolescents. METHOD: The PedsQL 4.0 was administered to 326 adolescents (12-17 years). A subsample of 115 adolescents completed the scale two weeks after the first assessment. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), correlation of the PedsQL 4.0 with the Weiss Functional Impairment Rating Scale-Self-report (WFIRS-S), and Item Response Theory (IRT) analysis were conducted to examine validity. Cronbach's alpha, McDonald's Omega, and Intra class correlation (ICC) were calculated as well to examine reliability. Gender and age effects were also evaluated. RESULTS: Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the total PedsQL 4.0 scale was .92 and .87, respectively. The PedsQL 4.0 scores showed negative moderate to strong correlations with the WFIRS-S total scale. The four-factor model of the PedsQL 4.0 was not fully supported by the CFA-the root mean square error of approximation and the comparative fit index showed a mediocre and poor fit, respectively. IRT analysis indicated that all items of the PedsQL 4.0 fit with the scale and most of them showed good discrimination. The items and total scale provided more information in the lower levels of the latent trait. Males showed significantly higher scores than females in physical and emotional functioning, psychosocial health, and total scale. Adolescents with lower ages showed better quality of life than those with higher ages in all scores of the PedsQL 4.0. CONCLUSION: The PedsQL 4.0 showed good psychometric properties with regard to internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity in Iranian adolescents, which supports its use in clinical settings among Persian-speaking adolescents. However, factor structure according to our CFA indicates that future work should address how to improve fit. In addition, studies that include PedsQL 4.0 should consider gender and age effects were reported.

Sluggish Cognitive Tempo in Adults Referred for an ADHD Evaluation: A Psychometric Analysis of Self- and Collateral Report.

Objective: Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptoms uniquely contribute to psychiatric and functional outcomes in child samples; however, the psychometric properties of SCT measures among adult outpatients are unknown. Method: Adults (n = 124) presenting for an ADHD evaluation provided self- and collateral report of SCT symptoms. Results: The SCT scale had good internal consistency and yielded three factors across raters: Slow/Daydreamy, Sleepy/Sluggish, and Low Initiation/Persistence. SCT scores exhibited convergent validity with ADHD symptoms across raters. Individuals with ADHD received higher SCT ratings than those without ADHD via collateral report, a pattern that was similar when comorbidity was considered. SCT was associated with poorer functioning after accounting for ADHD symptoms with some differential effects based on reporting source. Conclusion: Findings support the internal consistency and validity of a three-factor SCT scale among adult outpatients. Differential results between self- and collateral report demonstrate the importance of multiple reporters of SCT in clinical settings.

A Qualitative Analysis of Contextual Factors Relevant to Suspected Late-Onset ADHD.

Objective: Recent studies suggest attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may emerge post-childhood. We integrate qualitative methods to systematically characterize contextual factors that may (a) delay identification of ADHD in childhood and (b) inform why ADHD symptoms emerge post-childhood. Method: Suspected late-onset ADHD cases from the local normative comparison group of the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD completed a qualitative interview (14 young adults and 7 caregivers). Interviews were qualitatively analyzed. Results: We identified five themes. Three themes may attenuate or delay identification of childhood ADHD: external factors (e.g., supportive adults), internal factors (e.g., strong intellectual functioning), and other factors (e.g., dismissive attitudes toward ADHD). Two themes may accompany an increase in ADHD symptoms post-childhood: external factors (e.g., increased external demands) and internal factors (e.g., perceived stress). Conclusion: Clinicians should probe these factors in suspected late-onset cases to address (a) whether, how, and to what extent ADHD was attenuated in childhood and (b) why symptoms emerge post-childhood.

Eveningness Diurnal Preference: Putting the "Sluggish" in Sluggish Cognitive Tempo.

OBJECTIVE: Eveningness diurnal preference is common in psychiatric conditions, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and internalizing disorders. Little is known about how diurnal preference relates to sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT)-a distinct clinical construct associated with functional impairment-in clinical samples. METHOD: Adult outpatients (n = 65; 43 with ADHD, 22 with internalizing/adjustment disorders) self-reported on SCT symptoms (total symptoms; slow/daydreamy, sleepy/sluggish, and low initiation/persistence factors) and diurnal preference. RESULTS: Greater eveningness was associated with overall SCT severity and sleepy/sluggish symptoms in the full sample. Relationships between eveningness and overall SCT severity and slow/daydreamy symptoms were stronger for those with internalizing/adjustment disorders compared to ADHD. The relationship between eveningness and sleepy/sluggish symptoms was uniform across groups. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest a potential role of eveningness preference in adult SCT presentation. Future studies should investigate underlying mechanisms linking these two constructs and the efficacy of circadian interventions in the treatment of SCT among adult outpatients.

Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) in an adult outpatient sample seeking an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder assessment: Age of onset and assessment method impact on SCT rates.

BACKGROUND: Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) is associated with-but distinct from-attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study examined SCT rates in adult outpatients seeking an ADHD assessment, differences in rates based on ADHD status, impact of assessment method (i.e., reporting source, symptom count, and functional impairment), and age of SCT symptom onset. METHODS: Outpatients (n = 124) completed an SCT measure (n = 120 other-reporters). SCT was based on reporting source (i.e., self-report, other-report, either reporting source ["or" rule], and both reporting sources ["and" rule]), symptom count (i.e., age-based norms at or near the 93rd percentile, and a higher symptom count threshold of five), and functional impairment (i.e., 0, 1, and ≥2 domains). RESULTS: SCT rates varied based on assessment method for the full sample (26%-82%) and among those with (32%-91%) and without (16%-66%) ADHD. Rates decreased with stricter functional impairment and symptom count criteria. SCT was higher in the ADHD group than the non-ADHD group based on other-reporters and the "or" rule, but not the "and" rule. Functional impairment and symptom count criteria did not impact these comparisons. For self-reported SCT rates, ADHD/non-ADHD group comparisons did not differ based on age-based symptom count threshold, but did with a symptom count threshold of five. Self-reported SCT symptom onset was 13.36 years-old and was significantly younger for the ADHD group (11.69 years) than the non-ADHD group (16.36 years). CONCLUSIONS: Elevated SCT symptoms and related impairment are common among adults seeking an ADHD evaluation. These rates and ADHD/non-ADHD group differences vary substantially based on diagnostic methods.

Early substance use in the pathway from childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to young adult substance use: Evidence of statistical mediation and substance specificity.

This study tested whether early and developmentally atypical substance use mediates risk for adult substance use among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and whether that risk is substance-specific. Participants were children with ADHD previously enrolled in a randomized controlled trial (RCT), and a demographically similar non-ADHD group, assessed at 2 through 16 years after the original RCT baseline. Self-reports of heavy drinking, marijuana use, daily smoking, and other illicit drug use were collected at follow-ups to establish atypically early and frequent use. Models estimated statistically mediated effects of childhood ADHD on adult substance use via early substance involvement, with planned comparisons to evaluate substance specificity. Results supported the mediation hypothesis, showing that childhood ADHD was associated with more frequent adult substance use via early substance involvement for marijuana, cigarettes, illicit drugs, and to a lesser extent, alcohol. Mediation was not escalated by comorbid childhood conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder except for early use of nonmarijuana illicit drugs. Substance-specificity in the mediational pathway was largely absent except for cigarette use, where ADHD-related early smoking most strongly predicted adult daily smoking. Findings from this study provide new evidence that atypically early substance use associated with childhood ADHD signals important cross-drug vulnerability by early adulthood, but cigarette use at a young age is especially associated with increased risk for habitual (daily) smoking specifically. Efforts to prevent, delay, or reduce substance experimentation should occur early and focus on factors relevant to multiple drugs of abuse in this at-risk population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Cannabis use is associated with potentially heritable widespread changes in autism candidate gene DLGAP2 DNA methylation in sperm.

Parental cannabis use has been associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in offspring, but how such phenotypes are transmitted is largely unknown. Using reduced representation bisulphite sequencing (RRBS), we recently demonstrated that cannabis use is associated with widespread DNA methylation changes in human and rat sperm. Discs-Large Associated Protein 2 (DLGAP2), involved in synapse organization, neuronal signaling, and strongly implicated in autism, exhibited significant hypomethylation (p < 0.05) at 17 CpG sites in human sperm. We successfully validated the differential methylation present in DLGAP2 for nine CpG sites located in intron seven (p < 0.05) using quantitative bisulphite pyrosequencing. Intron 7 DNA methylation and DLGAP2 expression in human conceptal brain tissue were inversely correlated (p < 0.01). Adult male rats exposed to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) showed differential DNA methylation at Dlgap2 in sperm (p < 0.03), as did the nucleus accumbens of rats whose fathers were exposed to THC prior to conception (p < 0.05). Altogether, these results warrant further investigation into the effects of preconception cannabis use in males and the potential effects on subsequent generations.

Smoking abstinence effects on emotion dysregulation in adult cigarette smokers with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: Cigarette smoking is robustly associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but little is known about psychological mechanisms accounting for this comorbid relationship. This study examined difficulties in emotion regulation, or emotion dysregulation, among adult cigarette smokers with and without ADHD. Emotion dysregulation was predicted to be higher in an ADHD group at screening and after 24 -h smoking abstinence compared to a non-ADHD group. METHODS: Cigarette smokers with (n = 19) and without (n = 20) ADHD completed a screening visit, baseline visit, and two experimental visits: smoking as usual (i.e., smoking satiated) and after biochemically-verified 24 -h smoking abstinence (i.e., smoking abstinent). Three emotion dysregulation rating scales (two self-report and one clinician rated) were administered at the screening visit and experimental sessions. Experimental sessions also included two emotion dysregulation behavioral tasks. RESULTS: The ADHD group scored higher on all three rating scales at screening (p's < .001). For experimental sessions, group (ADHD, non-ADHD) x condition (smoking satiated, smoking abstinence) interactions were not significant across measures. However, group main effects emerged indicating higher emotion dysregulation in the ADHD group across all measures (p's < .001). Main effects also emerged for experimental condition, but were more mixed across emotion dysregulation measures. CONCLUSIONS: Emotion dysregulation was higher among adult smokers with ADHD and during smoking abstinence across diagnostic groups, suggesting that this malleable psychological mechanism plays a role in smoking both for those with and without ADHD-such findings can inform treatment and prevention efforts.

Adult substance use as a function of growth in peer use across adolescence and young adulthood in the context of ADHD: Findings from the MTA.

Peer substance use strongly predicts adolescent and young adult substance use, but its role in ADHD-related risk for substance use, especially in adulthood, is unclear. In a sample with (n = 516) and without (n = 249) childhood ADHD from the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD, we compared associations between change over time in peer substance use and personal substance use (alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, illicit drugs) from age 14-26 by ADHD status. Developmentally typical peer substance use trajectories across adolescence and young adulthood coincided with similar changes in personal use - but less so for those with ADHD histories. Concurrent associations between peer and personal use in adolescence and young adulthood were weaker for those with ADHD histories than without for commonly used substances (alcohol, marijuana). Prospectively, escalating peer use during adolescence forecasted adulthood declines for commonly used substances, yet persistently high substance use at age 25, regardless of ADHD history. In the reverse direction, growth in adolescent substance use predicted developmentally normative young adult declines in peer use - but for the ADHD group, adolescent heavy drinking predicted increases in young adult peer use. Findings suggest that individuals with ADHD may have difficulty emulating their peers' developmentally normative declines in substance use, highlighting the importance of social factors when treating young adults affected by ADHD and substance abuse.

Depression and ADHD-Related Risk for Substance Use in Adolescence and Early Adulthood: Concurrent and Prospective Associations in the MTA.

Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is prospectively linked to substance use and disorder. Depression emerging in adolescence is an understudied risk factor that may explain some of this risk. In the present study, we considered mediating and moderating roles of adolescent depression in explaining this association by using longitudinal data from the prospective 16-year follow-up of the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (MTA). Participants were 547 children diagnosed with DSM-IV ADHD Combined Type, and 258 age- and sex-matched comparison children. In adolescence, depressive symptoms did not exacerbate effects of childhood ADHD on any substance use. For both groups, time-varying and average depressive symptoms were associated with more frequent use of all substances. Prospectively, we found no evidence of depression mediation to adult substance use. However, adolescent depression moderated the association between childhood ADHD and adult marijuana use. Although adults without ADHD histories used marijuana more frequently if they had elevated depressive symptoms in adolescence, marijuana use by adults with ADHD histories was independent of their adolescent depression. In adulthood, depression diagnoses and ADHD persistence continued to operate as independent, additive correlates of substance use risk. Our findings suggest a circumscribed role for depression in substance use risk that adds to, but does not alter or explain, ADHD-related risk.

Attention and behavioral control skills in Iranian school children.

This study assessed quality of life, emotional and behavioral problems, prosocial behavior, and functional impairment in a sample of Iranian children based on their attention and behavioral control skills. The sample consisted of 280 male and female children aged between 6 and 12 years old who were divided into strong, moderate, and weak groups based on parental ratings of attention and behavioral control skills on the strengths and weaknesses of ADHD symptom and normal behavior rating scale (SWAN). In addition, parents completed the pediatric quality of life inventory version 4.0 generic core scales (PedsQL 4.0), the strengths and difficulties questionnaire, and the Weiss functional impairment rating scale-parent report (WFIRS-P). The strong group generally showed better quality of life than the weak group. The strong group was better than the moderate group, and the moderate group was better than the weak group on school functioning. The weak group had more conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention and less prosocial behavior than the moderate group and the strong group. The moderate group had more hyperactivity/inattention than the strong group. The weak group showed more impairment than the moderate group and the strong group on all subscales and the total scale of the WFIRS-P. The quality of life, behavioral problems, prosocial behavior, and functional impairment can be different in children based on their attention and behavioral control skills.