Seasonal variations and health risk assessment of microbial contaminations of groundwater in selected coastal communities of Ghana.

This study investigated seasonal variations in microbial contaminations of groundwater and associated health risks in four coastal communities (Essiama, Winneba, Accra, and Keta) in Ghana. Membrane filtration methods, sanitary risk inspection, and quantitative microbial risk assessment were employed, respectively, to (i) quantify bacteriological quality, (ii) identify risks to contamination, and (iii) assess health risks associated with Escherichia coli in groundwater. Results showed 70.00%, 53.33%, 70.37% and 90.00% of groundwater sources in Essiama, Winneba, Accra, and Keta, respectively, were at intermediate risk, whereas 3.33%, 40.00%, 14.81%, and 3.33%, respectively, were at high risk. Very high-risk levels of contamination were recorded only in Accra. The presence of animal wastes within a 10 m radius of groundwater collection point, bad drainage systems, collection of spilt water in apron area, the use of ropes and buckets when fetching groundwater, and absence of aprons and well covers put more than 60.00% of the groundwater points in two or more locations at risk of contaminations. Assessment of bacteriological quality of groundwater indicated that mean total coliforms and E. coli ranged, respectively, between 123.40-501.30 and 30.98-141.90 CFU/100 ml for the communities; the highest microbial counts for dry and wet seasons occurred in Winneba and Keta, respectively. Seasonal variations in E. coli counts in Winneba and Accra were significantly higher in the dry season than in the wet season; Essiama and Keta showed no significant seasonal variations. Exposure to E. coli O157:H7 through drinking groundwater ranged between 5 and 23 cells per day. Although exposure to E. coli O157:H7 through bathing was less than 1 cell per day in all communities, residents were exposed to one E. coli, at least, every 62, 141, 237, and 282 days in Winneba, Accra, Keta, and Essiama, respectively. The risk of infection and illness for all communities was 1 for drinking, whereas that for bathing ranged from 0.57 to 0.98. The estimated Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) exceeded the WHO-acceptable DALY. These findings show that groundwater resources in the selected coastal communities were prone to microbial contaminations, and this may be a setback to Sustainable Development Goals 6. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Assessment of environmental degradation in two coastal communities of Ghana using Driver Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) framework.

In this study, a qualitative research method using Driver Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) framework was employed to assess the drivers of environmental degradation and their implications on Anlo and Sanwoma coastal communities in the Western Region of Ghana. Pollution Index (PI) and Environmental Risk Factor (ERF) were estimated in Pra and Ankobra estuaries, respectively, in Anlo and Sanwoma communities to complement the qualitative assessment in the studied coastal communities. The state and condition of the coastal ecosystems are critical to the well-being and livelihood of the residents of the two coastal communities. Therefore, it was important to assess the drivers of environmental degradation and their consequences on the coastal communities. The findings showed that the coastal communities were severely degraded and were in a vulnerable state due to the impact of drivers such as gold mining, farming, improper waste disposal, and illegal fishing that pressurize the environment. Also, PI and ERFs showed that the estuaries in Anlo and Sanwoma coastal communities were contaminated with metals such as arsenic, lead, zinc, and iron. Some of the impacts of the environmental degradation on the communities included reduction in fish catch and health-related ailments among the residents of the two communities. Unfortunately, regulatory policies by government and efforts of non-governmental organisations and members of the two coastal communities to address the environmental issues have not yielded the desired results. It is recommended that there should be urgent interventions by policymakers to stop further degradations in the coastal communities to enhance the well-being and livelihoods of the residents of Anlo and Sanwoma.

Assessing the combined effect of household cooking fuel and urbanicity on acute respiratory symptoms among under-five years in sub-Saharan Africa.

Background: This study sought to investigate the association between urbanicity (rural-urban residency), the use of solid biomass cooking fuels and the risk of Acute Respiratory Infections (ARIs) among children under the age of 5 in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Methods: Cross-sectional data from the most recent surveys of the Demographic and Health Survey Program conducted in 31 sub-Saharan African countries were pooled for the analysis. The outcome variables, cough and rapid short breath were derived from questions that asked mothers if their children under the age of 5 suffered from cough and short rapid breath in the past two weeks preceding the survey. To examine the associations, multivariable negative log-log regression models were fitted for each outcome variable. Results: Higher odds ratios of cough occurred among children in urban households that use unclean cooking fuel (aOR = 1.05 95% CI = 1.01, 1.08). However, lower odds ratios were observed for rural children in homes that use clean cooking fuel (aOR = 0.93 95% CI = 0.87, 0.99) relative to children in urban homes using clean cooking fuel. We also found higher odds ratios of short rapid breaths among children in rural households that use unclean cooking fuel compared with urban residents using clean cooking fuel (aOR = 1.12 95% CI = 1.08, 1.17). Conclusion: Urbanicity and the use of solid biomass fuel for cooking were associated with an increased risk of symptoms of ARIs among children under five years in SSA. Thus, policymakers and stakeholders need to design and implement strategies that minimize children's exposure to pollutants from solid biomass cooking fuel. Such interventions could reduce the burden of respiratory illnesses in SSA and contribute to the realization of Sustainable Development Goal 3.9, which aims at reducing the number of diseases and deaths attributable to hazardous chemicals and pollution of air, water and soil.

Estimating global water, sanitation, and hygiene levels and related risks on human health, using global indicators data from 1990 to 2020.

Water quality improvement, sanitation, and hygiene have been demonstrated to have positive impacts on health, social, and economic development. However, global understanding of water quality, sanitation, and hygiene is limited. The study extracted data from the Joint Monitoring Programme (WHO/UNICEF) and the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) to estimate global water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) levels. Statistical tools of univariate and multivariate analyses were used to process global access to WASH. Results show that men (53%) had access to safe water compared to women. Women (67%), on the other hand, demonstrated better hygiene practices than men (33%). In addition, adults had access to safe water compared to children, the elderly, and strangers. Globally, there is low water quality in landlock developing countries compared to small island developing states. The categorisation of countries into economic states of low, upper-middle, and high-income countries directly affects water quality, sanitation, and hygiene. Continentally, Africa recorded the least water quality, sanitation, and hygiene levels. Thus, African countries must learn from the best practice in governmental policies and management systems from other continents regarding water improvement, sanitation, and hygiene.

Earth System's Gatekeeping of "One Health" Approach to Manage Climate-Sensitive Infectious Diseases.

Global response to climate-sensitive infectious diseases has been uncertain and slow. The understanding of the underlying vulnerabilities which forms part of changes created by forces within the Earth system has never before been critical until the coronavirus disease 2019, "COVID-19" pandemic with the initial developmental phase linked to weather elements and climate change. Hence, the heightened interest in climate-sensitive infectious diseases and GeoHealth, evident in the renewed calls for "One Health" approach to disease management. "One Health" explains the commonality of human and animal medicine, and links to the bio-geophysical environment, yet are at crossroads with how forces within the Earth system shape etiologies, incidences, and transmission dynamics of infectious diseases. Hence, the paper explores how these forces, which are multistage and driven by climate change impacts on ecosystems affect emerging infectious diseases, leading to the question "what drive the drivers of diseases?" Three questions that challenge broad theories of Earth system science on boundaries and connectivity emerged to guide study designs to further interrogating disease surveillance and health early warning systems. This is because, climate change (a) drives prevailing biological health hazards as part of forces within the Earth system, (b) shifts disease control services of ecosystems and functioning to effectively regulate disease incidence, and (c) modifies pathogen-species hosts relationships. Hence, the need to rethink pluralistic concepts of climate-sensitive diseases in their infection and management from a GeoHealth perspective, which "One Health" potentially conveys, and to also maintain ecosystem health.

The need for alternative pest management methods to mitigate risks among cocoa farmers in the Volta region, Ghana.

The objective of this study is to assess the adoption of alternative pest management methods to reduce risks among cocoa farmers in the Volta region. Cultural control methods found to be the most practiced alternative pest management, especially in the Ho West district where majority of the farmers were more knowledgeable of alternative pest control methods. There was significant relationship between agrochemical shop services (χ2 = 13,028, p < 0.000), farming years of experience (χ2 = 16.424, p < 0.002), knowledge in degree of pest infestation (χ2 = 8.498, p < 0.000), education (χ2 = 10.557, p < 0.014), farmers' community (χ2 = 39.275, p < 0.000) and farmers' knowledge on alternative pest control methods. Farmers who relied on agrochemical shop services for pest control methods were 87% less likely to be knowledgeable on alternative pest control methods while those who considered degree of pest infestation in pest management were (OR = 1.150, p <0.008) more likely to be knowledgeable on alternative pest control methods. For the socio-cultural factors, Leklebi Kame (OR = 9.53-e 08, p < 0.000), Bla (OR = 0.280, p < 0.027) and Gbledi Chebi (OR = 0.287, p < 0.053) were less likely to be knowledgeable on alternative method of pest control compared to Kpedze. Fellow farmers and extension agents were the major sources of information on alternative pest control methods in the study area. Economic, technical, unavailability of labour, and farm implements were factors hampering adoption of alternative pest control methods in the study area. The most pesticide toxicological symptom reported was skin irritation and was recorded among majority of the farmers in Hohoe and Afadjato South districts where low knowledge and patronage of alternative pests control methods were identified. Awareness creation and capacity building programs should be organized through fellow farmers and extension agents on the need to reduce the use of chemical pesticide in pest management.

Groundwater pollution assessment in a coastal aquifer in Cape Coast, Ghana.

This work presents an assessment of the chemico-physical and microbial quality of water samples from hand-dug wells in the shallow aquifer of three communities neighbouring the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. Sanitary risk inspection was undertaken at each well location and the physical parameters including electrical conductivity, pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and etc. were measured in situ via probes. Microbial groundwater quality was analysed using membrane filtration method. Samples of water were analysed for the pollution indicator anions including chloride and nitrate. In addition, the possible persistence of bacteria in groundwater environments in the absence of predator organisms were studied and results fitted with exponential, second-order polynomial and linear distribution models. Sanitary risk inspection and microbial quality results indicate that all the wells were at risk and polluted with total coliforms from on-site sanitation. Twenty-five percent (7 out of 28) of the wells recorded DO concentration within acceptable limits of drinking water standards (> 5 mg/L). Average chloride concentration, 360.5 mg/L (range: 46 mg/L to 844 mg/L) and average electrical conductivity value of 1.5 mS/cm (range: 213 µS/cm to 2.7 mS/cm) were both higher than WHO recommended limits. Acidic conditions (pH < 6.5) were observed in water samples, indicating mineralisation of the aquifer. The high EC values and chloride content in groundwater were attributable to dry atmospheric aerosol deposition and possible mineral dissolution in the aquifer. Bacteria re-growth experiment results indicate that second-order polynomial distribution best describes bacteria inactivation rates in the absence of antagonist predators in our work. Extrapolation of time for complete inactivation of bacteria under groundwater environment ranged from 0.1 to 4 years indicating bacteria can persist in aquifers for long period of time. It was concluded that all the wells are at risk of pollution and polluted with faecal matter and atmospheric aerosols.

Assessment of surface water quality status of the Aby Lagoon System in the Western Region of Ghana.

The pollution status of the Tendo Lagoon, the upstream section of the Aby Lagoon System, was investigated. The water temperature, pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), nitrates (NO3 -), and phosphate (PO4 3-) levels were evaluated using samples taken during the wet and dry seasons to assess the variabilities in water quality in the area. The water quality data was subjected to paired t-test, One-way ANOVA, Factor Analysis, Cluster analysis (CA) as well as a Water Quality Index (WQI) evaluation using the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) model. The paired sample t-test confirmed that the surface water quality varies significantly between the wet and dry season samples (p < 0.05) except for phosphate loads which may be contributed largely by year-round municipal waste discharges. The results of the ANOVA showed that the variation of the water quality parameters among sampling stations was not statistically significant except for turbidity which was relatively higher in the upstream sections where the Tano River enters the lagoon. The results of FA indicated that three significant factors-relating to the degradation of organic materials, suspended solids (turbidity) and nutrients- accounted for 73.65% of spatio-temporal variations in the water quality. The CA showed that the eight sampling stations can be grouped into four distinct clusters based on their water quality. The source of pollution in the demarcated sections of the Aby Lagoon was concluded to be largely due to the result of localized anthropogenic inputs of domestic waste and sediments carried from the upstream in the Tano River. An evaluation of the CCME WQI for the sampling stations revealed that all the sampling stations showed marginal water quality relative to the target water quality range recommended by the Water Resources Commission (WRC) of Ghana for domestic use and protection of aquatic life. Monitoring programs were recommended with effective management measures instituted and implemented for the sustainability of the lagoon and the Tano River Basin.

Quality assessment and potential health risk of heavy metals in leafy and non-leafy vegetables irrigated with groundwater and municipal-waste-dominated stream in the Western Region, Ghana.

Vegetables cultivated in soil irrigated with untreated groundwater and municipal-waste-dominated (MWD) stream can elevate the concentration of heavy metals (Cd, Fe, Zn, Hg, Cr, and Ni) in edible parts of the crop, affecting food safety and public health worldwide. This study assessed the quality, sources, and distribution of heavy metals in surface soils, MWD stream and groundwater, and edible tissues of leafy and non-leafy vegetables from a major urban farm in the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis, Ghana. Human health risk due to exposure to the metals in frequently consumed vegetables were investigated. Indigenous leafy vegetables (Corchorus olitorious and Amaranthus spinosus), exotic leafy vegetables (Lactuca sativa, Brassica oleracea, and Brassica rapa), and non-leafy vegetables (Capsicum annum, Raphanus sativus, Daucus carota, and Allium cepa) were collected from the urban farm. The mean concentration of Cd, Hg, and Fe ranged from 0.008 - 0.027, 0.001-0.013, and 4.517-36.178 mg/kg fw in edible parts of non-leafy vegetables, respectively and 0.011-0.035, 0.002-0.011, and 3.617-13.695 mg/kg fw in exotic or indigenous leafy vegetables. The vegetables were less impacted with the metals if compared to similar vegetables produced from other urban farms, locally and in some countries in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Water resource on the farm were not suitable for vegetable crop irrigation since mean concentration of E. coli (200 cfu/mL), Hg (0.009 mg/L), and Cd (0.019 mg/L) in the MWD stream and 80 % of the groundwater sources exceeded the safe limits recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Geo-accumulation index for each metal in soil was ≤0, however, enrichment factor indicated a high anthropic enriched soil for Cr and Ni. Principal component analysis-multiple linear regression of the metals in soil identified mixed household waste/fertilizer, fertilizer, and crustal material as main sources for the heavy metal load in soil for which geogenic sources accounted for 74.3 %. Preferentially, Cd and Hg accumulated in Amaranthus spinosus, Daucus carota, and Corchorus olitorious. The estimated daily intake of each metal in the vegetables were below local and international daily dietary intake levels. At the 95th percentile concentration of each metal, target hazard quotient and the hazard index was <1 for adult male or female who consume the vegetables. Finally, appropriate agri-horticultural practices must be enforced to mitigate Cd, Ni, Cr, and Hg accumulation in the soil-vegetable system since the metals have profound adverse effect on human health.