The use of computed tomography for in vivo estimation of reticulo-rumen and omasum contents in Alpine goats.

Precise in vivo measurement of reticulo-rumen content (volume and mass) is required for the study of digestive processes. Rumen-cannulated animals have been classically used for this purpose, and less invasive alternatives are currently investigated to meet the replacement, reduction, and refinement (3Rs) ethical considerations in animal science. The objective was to compare in vivo reticulo-rumen and omasum volumes assessed by computed tomography (CT) scan with postmortem measurement of their respective digesta masses in dairy goats. Twenty Alpine dairy goats were scanned by CT, and the volumes of the reticulo-rumen and omasum were measured by CT image postprocessing. Goats were slaughtered immediately after CT scan and the masses of reticulo-rumen and omasum digesta were measured. Simple linear regressions were performed between volumes measured in vivo by CT and the corresponding digesta wet masses measured postmortem. Reticulo-rumen and omasum volumes determined by CT were significantly and linearly regressed against the corresponding digesta masses measured postmortem (R2 = 0.72 and 0.87, residual standard deviation = 1.18 and 0.06 kg, and residual coefficient of variation = 11% and 12%, n = 20 and 19, respectively). The use of CT is a promising noninvasive method to measure volume and estimate digesta masses of reticulo-rumen and omasum in small ruminants.

Genetic determinism of boar taint and relationship with growth traits, meat quality and lesions.

Breeding entire males is an alternative to surgical castration to improve their welfare. However, entire males may have a major quality defect called boar taint. Boar taint is partly due to the presence of androstenone in fat. In this study, we estimated the genetic parameters between androstenone and production traits to evaluate the consequences of selection against boar taint for traits of interest. We focused on growth traits, meat quality, lesions, hormone levels and computerised tomography measurements in purebred Piétrain (P) or Piétrain cross Large White (X) entire males. The number of measured animals varied from 670 P and 734 X for hormones concentrations to 553 P and 645 X for computerised tomography measurements. Skin lesions were measured on live pigs shortly after mixing, at the end of the fattening period, and on carcasses. Heritabilities of traits measured by tomography ranged from low to high: femur density (P: 0.34, X: 0.69), loin eye area (P: 0.53, X: 0.88) and loin eye density (P: 0.12, X: 0.18). The mean number of lesions at each stage was lower in purebred pigs than in crossbreds (entering the fattening stage 4.01 in P and 4.68 in X; before slaughter 3.72 in P and 4.22 in X; on carcass 4.50 in P and 4.96 in X). We also observed a decrease in the average number of lesions between the two stages in live pigs. We found high genetic correlations between stages in purebred pigs (0.74 to 0.76) but low correlations (-0.30 to 0.29) in crossbred pigs. Selection aiming to decrease fat androstenone is feasible (h2 = 0.57 in P and h2 = 0.71 in X). It would have overall positive effects on meat production and quality traits. Selection aiming to reduce plasma oestradiol would strongly reduce the level of fat androstenone (rg = 0.89 in P and rg = 0.84 in X). Selection against oestradiol is easier and less invasive since it would only require a blood sample rather than a fat biopsy in live animals.

Effect of feed restriction on the performance and behaviour of pigs immunologically castrated with Improvac®.

For centuries, entire male pigs have been castrated to reduce the risk of boar taint. However, physical castration of pig is increasingly being questioned with regard to animal welfare considerations. Immunization against gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) provides an alternative to physical castration. Using the currently available commercial product (Improvac®; Pfizer Animal Health), a two-dose regimen of a GnRH vaccine is administered. After the second vaccination, a substantial increase in feed consumption has been reported, which may be associated with increased body fatness and decreased feed efficiency when compared with unvaccinated entire male pigs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of a feed restriction on these traits and on the behaviour of 120 group-housed entire males (five pigs/pen) vaccinated against GnRH. The first vaccination was performed at 62 days of age and the second (V2) at 130 days of age. Pigs were slaughtered in two batches 4 to 5 weeks after V2. They were either offered feed ad libitum over the 22 to 114 kg BW range (AL treatment) or ad libitum up to a maximum of 2.50 (R2.50 treatment) or 2.75 kg/day per pig (R2.75 treatment). Behavioural observations and skin lesion scoring were conducted 1 week before V2, and 1 and 3 weeks after V2. At slaughter, the volumetric lean meat content was measured using an X-ray computed tomography scanner. Between V2 and slaughter, the average feed intakes for the R2.75 and R2.50 treatments were 15% and 22% lower than the average AL feed intake (3.20 kg/day), respectively. Feed restriction was associated with a reduced average daily gain after V2 (846, 932 and 1061 g/day in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P < 0.01) but had no effect on the feed conversion ratio (3.00 kg feed/kg BW gain on average, P = 0.62). No difference was observed in the lean meat content (71.8%, 70.7% and 70.4% in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P = 0.14), despite a reduced backfat thickness measured in restrictively fed pigs (12.0, 13.0 and 13.6 mm in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P < 0.01). Higher skin lesion scores were observed 3 weeks after V2 in R2.50 and R2.75 pigs than in the AL ones (scores 33.4, 27.7 and 25.5, respectively, P = 0.04). These results, combined with an unimproved feed efficiency and no marked change in carcass characteristics, suggest that immunologically castrated pigs should not be restrictively fed during the late finishing period.

Comparison of the lipid content and fatty acid composition of intermuscular and subcutaneous adipose tissues in pig carcasses.

Lipid contents and compositions were measured in 35 pigs from seven genotype-sex groups with large variations in body composition. The animals were slaughtered at 115kg live weight, and the left side was separated into four primal cuts: belly, ham, loin, and shoulder. Samples of adipose tissues were taken from flare fat and from subcutaneous and intermuscular adipose tissues in each of the four cuts. In the loin, the outer and inner layers of subcutaneous adipose tissue were sampled separately. Total lipid content was lower in intermuscular than in subcutaneous adipose tissue. It was the highest in flare fat. There was a gradient of decreasing unsaturation from the outer layer of subcutaneous adipose tissue, to the inner layer, to intermuscular adipose tissue, to flare fat. The monounsaturated fatty acid concentrations followed the same pattern. There was a statistically positive correlation between the linoleic acid concentration of the different adipose tissues and the half carcass muscle content.

Quantification of muscle, subcutaneous fat and intermuscular fat in pig carcasses and cuts by magnetic resonance imaging.

The aim of this study was to determine the suitability of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to predict tissue composition of pig carcasses and cuts. Twenty-four pig carcasses were cut into the four primary cuts that were analyzed with a low field MRI imager before a total dissection. Images were then processed to identify and quantify pixels representing muscle, subcutaneous fat and intermuscular fat fractions. MRI provided a good prediction of muscle content in cuts and carcasses, with R(2) ranging from 0.970 to 0.997. The prediction was slightly less accurate for total fat (0.951⩽R(2)⩽0.986) or subcutaneous fat (0.918⩽R(2)⩽0.994). Finally, the prediction of intermuscular fat content in considering intermuscular fat classified pixels was acceptable only for the belly (R(2)=0.837).

Muscle and fat quantification in MRI gradient echo images using a partial volume detection method. Application to the characterization of pig belly tissue.

Complete dissection is the current reference method to quantify muscle and fat tissue on pig carcasses. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an appropriate nondestructive alternative method that can provide reliable and quantitative information on pig carcass composition without losing the spatial information. We have developed a method to quantify the amount of fat tissue and muscle in gradient echo MR images. This method is based on the method proposed by Shattuck et al. [12]. It provides segmentation of pure tissue and partial volume voxels, which allows separation of muscle and fat tissue including the fine insertions of intermuscular fat. Partial volume voxel signal is expected to be proportional to the signals of pure tissue constituting them or at least to vary monotonously with the proportion of each tissue. However, it is not always the case with gradient echo sequence due to the chemical shift effect. We studied this effect on a fat tissue/muscle interface model with variable proportion of water in the fat tissue and variable TE. We found that at TE=8 ms, for a 0.2-T MRI system, the requirement of Shattuck's method were filled thanks to the presence of water in fat tissue. Moreover, we extended the segmentation method with a simple correction scheme to compute more accurately the proportions of each tissue in partial volume voxels. We used this method to evaluate the fat tissue and muscle on 24 pig bellies using a gradient echo sequence (TR 700 ms, TE 8 ms, slice thickness 8 mm, number of averages 8, flip angle 90 degrees , FOV 512 mm, matrix 512*512, Rect. FOV 4/8, 19 slices, space between slices 2 mm). The image analysis results were compared with dissection results giving a prediction error of the muscle content (mean=2.7 kg) of 88.9 g and of the fat content (mean=2.7 kg) of 115.8 g without correction of the chemical shift effect in the computation of partial volume fat content. The correction scheme improved these results to, respectively, 81.5 and 107.1 g.