The Defensive Behaviors and Milk Production of Pastured Dairy Cattle in Response to Stable Flies, Horn Flies, and Face Flies.

Thirty-four crossbred dairy cows were observed on pasture six times per week from June to August 2014 at the University of Minnesota West Central Research and Outreach Center grazing dairy in Morris, MN, for defensive behaviors in response to three species of muscid flies. Counts of stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)), horn flies (Haematobia irritans (L.)), and face flies (Musca autumnalis DeGeer) were recorded before and after pasture observation. Individual cows were monitored for 5 min intervals to observe the frequencies of five different defensive behaviors: front and back leg stomps, head tosses, skin twitches, and tail swishes. Fly numbers averaged 5 stable flies per leg, 37 horn flies per side, and 1 face fly per face during the study. The fly counts and behavior frequencies increased with ambient temperature. The results showed a very strong relationship between the numbers of flies and numbers of defensive behaviors, though correlations between specific flies and behaviors were low. Younger cows had fewer stable flies and horn flies than older cows. The thresholds of flies to lower production for pastured organic dairy cows may be greater than 5 for stable flies, 37 for horn flies, and 1 for face flies.

Frequencies and distribution of kdr and Ace alleles that cause insecticide resistance in house flies in the United States.

House flies (Musca domestica L) are nuisances and vectors of pathogens between and among humans and livestock. Population suppression has been accomplished for decades with pyrethroids and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, but recurrent selection has led to increased frequency of alleles conferring resistance to those two classes of active ingredients (Geden et al., 2021). A common mechanism of resistance to both classes involves an altered target site (mutations in Voltage gated sodium channel (Vgsc) for pyrethroids or in Ace for AChE inhibitors). As part of ongoing efforts to understand the origin, spread and evolution of insecticide resistance alleles in house fly populations, we sampled flies in 11 different US states, sequenced, and then estimated frequencies of the Vgsc and Ace alleles. There was substantial variation in frequencies of the four common knockdown resistance alleles (kdr (L1014F), kdr-his (L1014H), super-kdr (M918T + L10414F) and 1B (T929I + L1014F) across the sampled states. The kdr allele was found in all 11 states and was the most common allele in four of them. The super-kdr allele was detected in only six collections, with the highest frequencies found in the north, northeast and central United States. The kdr-his allele was the most common allele in PA, NC, TN and TX. In addition, a novel super-kdr-like mutation in mutually exclusive exon 17a was found. The overall frequencies of the different Ace alleles, which we name based on the amino acid present at the mutation sites (V260L, A316S, G342A/V and F407Y), varied considerably between states. Five Ace alleles were identified: VAGF, VAVY, VAGY, VAAY and VSAY. Generally, the VSAY allele was the most common in the populations sampled. The susceptible allele (VAGF) was found in all populations, ranging in frequency from 3% (KS) to 41% (GA). Comparisons of these resistance allele frequencies with those previously found suggests a dynamic interaction between the different alleles, in terms of levels of resistance they confer and likely fitness costs they impose in the absence of insecticides.

Persistence of the invasive bird-parasitic fly Philornis downsi over the host interbreeding period in the Galapagos Islands.

Many parasites of seasonally available hosts must persist through times of the year when hosts are unavailable. In tropical environments, host availability is often linked to rainfall, and adaptations of parasites to dry periods remain understudied. The bird-parasitic fly Philornis downsi has invaded the Galapagos Islands and is causing high mortality of Darwin's finches and other bird species, and the mechanisms by which it was able to invade the islands are of great interest to conservationists. In the dry lowlands, this fly persists over a seven-month cool season when availability of hosts is very limited. We tested the hypothesis that adult flies could survive from one bird-breeding season until the next by using a pterin-based age-grading method to estimate the age of P. downsi captured during and between bird-breeding seasons. This study showed that significantly older flies were present towards the end of the cool season, with ~ 5% of captured females exhibiting estimated ages greater than seven months. However, younger flies also occurred during the cool season suggesting that some fly reproduction occurs when host availability is low. We discuss the possible ecological mechanisms that could allow for such a mixed strategy.

Calliphoridae (Diptera) on Decomposing Pig Carcasses and Human Cadavers in the Upper Midwest of North America.

The geographic ranges of forensically informative taxa on decomposing remains vary across regions. To determine which calliphorid flies would be expected to occur in Minnesota and the upper Midwest, individual freshly killed pig carcasses (Sus scrofa L.) were placed in the field in St. Paul, MN, at monthly intervals from May to October 2017 and May to September 2018. Aerial nets, forceps, and pitfall traps were used to collect and preserve associated adult and immature insects. Sixty-four forensically informative insect taxa were recorded, representing three insect orders and 14 families. Ten informative calliphorid species were recorded on carcasses, adding four new Minnesota records. Comparison of species lists from 26 human forensic cases indicated agreement between the two lists, except for Lucilia coeruleiviridis Macquart, Calliphora vomitoria (L.), and Cynomya cadaverina Robineau-Desvoidy, which occurred on pig carcasses but not human remains, and Calliphora livida Hall, which occurred on human remains, but not carcasses. The composite fauna list from cadavers agreed largely with the 2-yr list from pig carcasses.

Efficacy and Nontarget Effects of a Spinosad-Based Larvicide in Minnesota Vernal Pools and Cattail Marshes.

Larvicides that contain spinosad, a bacterial metabolite, are used to control mosquitoes in diverse aquatic habitats. These same habitats are home to other invertebrates, including Crustacea-fairy shrimp, isopods, and amphipods-and mollusks-fingernail clams and freshwater snails. A double-blind study evaluated the effects of Natular® G, a granular treatment containing spinosad, on spring Aedes spp. and nontarget invertebrates in vernal wetlands. Within 14 days after application, Natular G controlled larvae of spring Aedes by 53-84%, depending on species, but had no significant effects on numbers of fairy shrimp, fingernail clams, or freshwater snails. A second double-blind study evaluated effects on Coquillettidia perturbans and nontarget isopods and amphipods in cattail marshes. Treatment reduced emergence of Cq. perturbans by 25% but did not change numbers of isopods or amphipods. The 2 experiments indicate Natular G could be effective against spring Aedes in vernal wetlands, less so against Cq. perturbans in cattail marshes, and yet pose minimal risk to crustaceans and mollusks in either vernal wetlands or cattail marshes.

Milk Production, Body Weight, Body Condition Score, Activity, and Rumination of Organic Dairy Cattle Grazing Two Different Pasture Systems Incorporating Cool- and Warm-Season Forages.

Organic dairy cows were used to evaluate the effect of two organic pasture production systems (temperate grass species and warm-season annual grasses and cool-season annuals compared with temperate grasses only) across two grazing seasons (May to October of 2014 and 2015) on milk production, milk components (fat, protein, milk urea nitrogen (MUN), somatic cell score (SCS)), body weight, body condition score (BCS), and activity and rumination (min/day). Cows were assigned to two pasture systems across the grazing season at an organic research dairy in Morris, Minnesota. Pasture System 1 was cool-season perennials (CSP) and Pasture System 2 was a combination of System 1 and warm-season grasses and cool-season annuals. System 1 and System 2 cows had similar milk production (14.7 and 14.8 kg d-1), fat percentage (3.92% vs. 3.80%), protein percentage (3.21% vs. 3.17%), MUN (12.5 and 11.5 mg dL-1), and SCS (4.05 and 4.07), respectively. Cows in System 1 had greater daily rumination (530 min/day) compared to cows in System 2 (470 min/day). In summary, warm-season annual grasses may be incorporated into grazing systems for pastured dairy cattle.

Efficacy of Broilers as a Method of Face Fly (Musca autumnalis De Geer) Larva Control for Organic Dairy Production.

The objective of this study was to evaluate Freedom-Ranger broiler chickens as a method to control face fly (Musca autumnalis De Geer) larvae in cow dung pats on pasture. Ninety-nine pats in three replicates were inoculated with first-instar larvae and exposed to one of four treatment conditions for 3 to 4 days: (1) an environment-controlled greenhouse (GH); (2) pasture without broilers (NEG); (3) pasture with 25 broilers stocked at a low density of 2.5 m2 of outdoor area per broiler (LOW); and (4) pasture with 25 broilers stocked at a high density of 0.5 m2 of outdoor area per broiler (HIGH). Broiler behaviors and weather conditions were recorded twice daily. Survival rates of larvae (mean, 95% CI) were similar for pats in the NEG (4.4%, 2-9%), LOW (5.6%, 3-11%), and HIGH (3.2%, 2-7%) groups, and was greatest for larvae reared in the GH (54.4%, 36-72%) group compared to all other groups. The proportion of broilers observed pasture ranging was 14.0% (6-28%) but was negatively related to solar radiation. Broilers were never observed foraging in pats. Results indicate that use of broilers may not be an effective method for controlling larvae of dung pat breeding flies.

Population dynamics of an invasive bird parasite, Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae), in the Galapagos Islands.

The invasive parasitic fly, Philornis downsi (Muscidae), is one of the greatest threats to the avifauna of the Galapagos Islands. The larvae of this fly feed on the blood and tissues of developing nestlings of at least 18 endemic and native birds. The aim of the current study was to investigate biotic and abiotic factors that may influence the population dynamics of this invasive parasite. To study the influence of vegetation zone and related climatic factors on fly numbers, a bi-weekly monitoring program using papaya-baited traps was carried out at a dry, lowland site and at a humid, highland site on Santa Cruz Island between 2012-2014. Female flies, a large proportion of which were inseminated and gravid, were collected throughout the year at both sites, indicating females were active during and between the bird breeding seasons. This is the first evidence that female flies are able to persist even when hosts are scarce. On the other hand, catch rates of male flies declined between bird breeding seasons. Overall, catch rates of P. downsi were higher in the drier, lowland habitat, which may be a consequence of host or resource availability. Time was a stronger predictor of adult fly numbers than climate, further suggesting that P. downsi does not appear to be limited by its environment, but rather by host availability. Seasonal catch rates suggested that populations in both habitats were continuous and multivoltine. Numbers of adult female flies appeared to be regulated chiefly by simple direct density dependence, and may be governed by availability of bird nests with nestlings. Nevertheless, confounding factors such as the existence of reservoir hosts that perpetuate fly populations and changes in behavior of P. downsi may increase the vulnerability of bird hosts that are already IUCN red-listed or in decline.

Implications of seasonal and annual heat accumulation for population dynamics of an invasive defoliator.

Increasing temperatures can drive changes in the distribution and abundance of insects. The time of year when warming occurs (e.g., spring vs. autumn) may disparately influence the phenology of herbivorous insects and their host plants. We investigated the role of changing phenology in recent outbreaks of larch casebearer, an invasive defoliator of eastern larch in North America. We quantified degree-days required for eastern larch to break bud and larch casebearer to develop through each life stage from the onset of development in spring to autumnal dormancy. We developed degree-day models to reconstruct (1) spring phenological synchrony and (2) cumulative proportion of larvae reaching the overwintering stage based on historical climate data. The consequences of warmer autumns and winters (i.e., pre-spring warming) for the incidence and timing of spring activation of larvae were also investigated. Our results suggested that no significant changes have occurred in spring phenological synchrony, but the estimated proportions of larvae reaching the overwintering stage have significantly increased through time. Autumnal warming resulted in delayed spring activation, suggesting that warmer temperatures may act antagonistically on casebearer development, depending on time of year and intensity of warming. Our results provide evidence that increases in annual degree-day accumulation may have helped facilitate recent outbreaks of this invasive defoliator in North America.

Determinants and consequences of plant-insect phenological synchrony for a non-native herbivore on a deciduous conifer: implications for invasion success.

Phenological synchrony between herbivorous insects and host plants is an important determinant of insect distribution and abundance. Non-native insects often experience novel climates, photoperiods, and host plants. How critical time periods of insect life cycles coincide with-or diverge from-phenological windows of host plant suitability could affect invasion success and the dynamics of outbreaks. Larch casebearer is an invasive defoliator that has recently undergone anomalous outbreaks on eastern larch in North America. We conducted growth chamber, greenhouse, and field studies to quantify the spring phenological window for larch casebearer on eastern larch and importance of phenological synchrony for casebearer development and survival. We constructed degree-day models of spring activity for both species and investigated responses of casebearers to early and delayed activation relative to bud break. Both species had lower developmental thresholds of ~ 5 °C, but mean activation of casebearers occurred 245 degree-days after bud break by eastern larch. In addition to forcing temperatures, phenologies of eastern larch and casebearer larvae were significantly influenced by chilling and photoperiod, respectively. Larvae were robust to both starvation and delayed activation; days between larval activation and bud break (range: 0-58 days) had no influence on larval development and survival to adulthood. Disparate plant-insect responses to environmental cues and robustness of casebearers to changes in phenology result in a wide phenological window that likely has contributed to the insect's broad distribution in eastern North America. Changes in phenological synchrony, however, do not appear to have facilitated recent outbreaks of larch casebearer on eastern larch.

Spatial Patterns and Sequential Sampling Plans for Estimating Densities of Stink Bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in Soybean in the North Central Region of the United States.

Stink bugs are an emerging threat to soybean (Fabales: Fabaceae) in the North Central Region of the United States. Consequently, region-specific scouting recommendations for stink bugs are needed. The aim of this study was to characterize the spatial pattern and to develop sampling plans to estimate stink bug population density in soybean fields. In 2016 and 2017, 125 fields distributed across nine states were sampled using sweep nets. Regression analyses were used to determine the effects of stink bug species [Chinavia hilaris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and Euschistus spp. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)], life stages (nymphs and adults), and field locations (edge and interior) on spatial pattern as represented by variance-mean relationships. Results showed that stink bugs were aggregated. Sequential sampling plans were developed for each combination of species, life stage, and location and for all the data combined. Results for required sample size showed that an average of 40-42 sample units (sets of 25 sweeps) would be necessary to achieve a precision of 0.25 for stink bug densities commonly encountered across the region. However, based on the observed geographic gradient of stink bug densities, more practical sample sizes (5-10 sample units) may be sufficient in states in the southeastern part of the region, whereas impractical sample sizes (>100 sample units) may be required in the northwestern part of the region. Our findings provide research-based sampling recommendations for estimating densities of these emerging pests in soybean.

Optimizing band selection for spectral detection of Aphis glycines Matsumura in soybean.

BACKGROUND: Soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a significant insect pest of soybean in North America. Accurate estimation of A. glycines densities requires costly, time-intensive weekly counts of adults and nymphs on plants. Field studies were conducted in 2013 and 2014 to assess the potential for spectral-based remote sensing to more efficiently quantify cumulative aphid-days (CADs) using soybean canopy reflectance. RESULTS: Narrow-band wavelengths in the near-infrared spectral range were associated with CAD, but those in the visible spectral range were not associated with CAD. Simple linear regression models of CAD on reflectance were generally better than quadratic and cubic regression models. Simulated wide-band sensors centered at 740-1100 nm yielded better regression models than ones centered at 600-740 nm, regardless of bandwidth. Among the simulated wide-band sensors, increasing sensor bandwidth worsened CAD estimation or required more simulated sensors to optimize CAD estimation. Optimal combinations of spectral bands explained 83-96% of the experimentally manipulated variation in CAD. CONCLUSION: Near-infrared wavelengths at 780 ± 50 nm can effectively estimate A. glycines abundance on soybean. Our approach of simulating wide-band multispectral sensors from ground-based hyperspectral data helped to refine spectral sensors and holds potential to reduce the cost and complexity of treat/no-treat classification tasks. This study will contribute to future research aiming to quantify insect injury using customized commercial-grade sensors for detection, quantification, and differentiation of A. glycines from other stressors. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Emergence of the arterial worm Elaeophora schneideri in moose (Alces alces) and tabanid fly vectors in northeastern Minnesota, USA.

BACKGROUND: Moose (Alces alces) are a culturally and economically valued species in Minnesota. However, the moose population has experienced a sudden, marked decline in their range, including extirpation in the northwest and a 66% decline in the last decade in the northeast portions of the state. Although the exact cause of this decline is unclear, parasitic metastrongylid and filarioid nematode infections are known causes of morbidity and mortality in moose across North America. METHODS: To determine if these parasitic nematodes could be contributing to the Minnesota moose population decline, we molecularly examined banked tissues obtained from moose that died of known and unknown causes for the presence of nematode DNA. Extracted brain DNA of 34 individual moose was amplified utilizing primers targeting the 18S rRNA gene and internal transcribed spacer regions of nematodes. RESULTS: DNA sequencing revealed that PCR products obtained from 15 (44.1%) of the moose were 99% identical to Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, a metastrongylid known to cause neurological disease and death. Additionally, brain tissue from 20 (58.8%) individuals yielded sequences that most closely aligned with Elaeophora schneideri, a parasite associated with neurological impairment but previously unreported in Minnesota. Setaria yehi, a common filarioid parasite of deer, was also detected in the brain tissue of 5 (14.7%) moose. Molecular screening of 618 captured tabanid flies from four trapping sites revealed E. schneideri was present (6%) in the Minnesota environment and transmission could occur locally. Prevalence rates among the flies ranged between 0-100% per trapping site, with Chrysops spp. and Hybomitra spp. implicated as the vectors. CONCLUSIONS: Ultimately, these data confirm that P. tenuis is widespread in the Minnesota moose population and raises the question of the significance of E. schneideri as a contributing factor to morbidity and mortality in moose.

Low potential for mechanical transmission of Ebola virus via house flies (Musca domestica).

BACKGROUND: Ebola virus (EBOV) infection results in high morbidity and mortality and is primarily transmitted in communities by contact with infectious bodily fluids. While clinical and experimental evidence indicates that EBOV is transmitted via mucosal exposure, the ability of non-biting muscid flies to mechanically transmit EBOV following exposure to the face had not been assessed. RESULTS: To investigate this transmission route, house flies (Musca domestica Linnaeus) were used to deliver an EBOV/blood mixture to the ocular/nasal/oral facial mucosa of four cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis Raffles). Following exposure, macaques were monitored for evidence of infection through the conclusion of the study, days 57 and 58. We found no evidence of systemic infection in any of the exposed macaques. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate that there is a low potential for the mechanical transmission of EBOV via house flies - the conditions in this study were not sufficient to initiate infection.

Two compounds in bed bug feces are sufficient to elicit off-host aggregation by bed bugs, Cimex lectularius.

BACKGROUND: After feeding, bed bugs aggregate in cracks and crevices near a host. Aggregation and arrestment are mediated by tactile and chemical stimuli associated with the bugs' feces and exuviae. Volatiles derived from fecally stained filter papers were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and evaluated using a multichoice behavioral assay to determine their impact on bed bug aggregation. In addition, crude fecal extracts were collected in methanol, analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with electroantennogram detection (GC-EAD) and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and evaluated in open-air multichoice behavioral assays. RESULTS: The SPME method was used to detect (E)-2-hexenal and (E)-2-octenal in heated bed bug feces. The presence of these two volatile components did not affect aggregation. Analysis of the crude fecal extracts revealed several semi-volatile nitrogenous compounds, a carboxylic acid and a sulfur-based compound. Adult antennae responded to compounds eluted from three regions of the crude extract using GC-EAD. A combination of two compounds, dimethyl trisulfide and methyldiethanolamine, resulted in aggregation responses equivalent to the original crude extract. CONCLUSION: Bed bug aggregation is mediated by semi-volatile compounds derived from fecal extracts, and two compounds are sufficient to elicit aggregation. The two compounds identified here could be used to enhance the effectiveness of insecticidal applications or improve monitoring techniques. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Morphology, ultrastructure and functional role of antennal sensilla in off-host aggregation by the bed bug, Cimex lectularius.

After blood feeding on a host, bed bugs, Cimex lectularius, assemble in aggregation sites away from the host. Off-host aggregation is mediated by a combination of mechanical and chemical stimuli associated with bug feces. Partial antennectomies indicated removal of flagellomeres did not affect aggregation, but removal of the whole pedicel or its distal half significantly reduced (P < 0.01) aggregation, suggesting that sensilla related to off-host aggregation occur on the distal half of the pedicel. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that serrated hairs were distributed throughout the pedicel, but newly described smooth hairs were present mainly on the distal half, and a distinct patch of grooved pegs, smooth pegs and immersed cones was present on the posterior edge of the distal half of the pedicel in adults, but not in nymphs. Numbers of different types of sensilla increased significantly during metamorphosis from first instar to adult (P < 0.05), but were similar between genders (P = 0.11) and between females from a laboratory and field strain of bugs (P = 0.19). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that cuticular pores were present in the two types of pegs, indicating that the pegs have an olfactory function. The smooth hairs resembled gustatory sensilla previously described in Cimex hemipterus F. The existence of both olfactory and gustatory sensilla on the distal half of the pedicel suggests those sensilla may be the sensory basis of off-host aggregation behavior.

Economic impact of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on dairy and beef cattle production.

Stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), are among the most damaging arthropod pests of cattle worldwide. The last estimate of their economic impact on United States cattle production was published 20 yr ago and placed losses at $608 million. Subsequently, several studies of effects of stable flies on beef cattle weight gain and feed efficiency have been published, and stable flies have become increasingly recognized as pests of cattle on pasture and range. We analyzed published studies and developed yield-loss functions to relate stable fly infestation levels to cattle productivity, and then estimated the economic impact of stable flies on cattle production in the United States. Four industry sectors were considered: dairy, cow-calf, pastured stockers, and feeder cattle. In studies reporting stable fly infestation levels of individual herds, median annual per animal production losses were estimated to be 139 kg of milk for dairy cows, and 6, 26, and 9 kg body weight for preweanling calves, pastured stockers, and feeder cattle, respectively. The 200,000 stable flies emerging from an average sized winter hay feeding site reduce annual milk production of 50 dairy cows by an estimated 890 kg and weight gain of 50 preweanling calves, stockers, or feeder cattle by 58, 680, or 84 kg. In 2009 dollars, the value of these losses would be $254, $132, $1,279, or $154, respectively. Using cattle inventories and average prices for 2005-2009, and median monthly infestation levels, national losses are estimated to be $360 million for dairy cattle, $358 million for cow-calf herds, $1,268 million for pastured cattle, and $226 million for cattle on feed, for a total impact to U.S. cattle industries of $2,211 million per year. Excluded from these estimates are effects of stable flies on feed conversion efficiency, animal breeding success, and effects of infested cattle on pasture and water quality. Additional research on the effects of stable flies on high-production dairy cows and nursing beef calves is needed to increase the reliability of the estimates.

Checklist of mosquitoes in Savanna Portage State Park, north-central Minnesota.

A faunal survey of mosquitoes was conducted in 1988 and 1989 at Savanna Portage State Park in north-central Minnesota (Aitkin County). Adults were sampled by sweep net around collectors, aspirator in vegetation, and CO2 traps in the park. Larvae were taken with dipper from various larval habitats. A total of 32 species were detected, including 16 new records for Aitkin County, MN. Prior to this survey, Aedes decticus and Culiseta melanura were reported in Minnesota once previously.

Host ranges of gregarious muscoid fly parasitoids: Muscidifurax raptorellus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), Tachinaephagus zealandicus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), and Trichopria nigra (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae).

Attack rates, progeny production, sex ratios, and host utilization efficiency of Muscidifurax raptorellus (Kogan and Legner) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), Tachinaephagus zealandicus Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), and Trichopria nigra (Nees) (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) were evaluated in laboratory bioassays with five dipteran hosts: house fly (Musca domestica L.), stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans L.), horn fly (Hematobia irritans L.), black dump fly [Hydrotaea aenescens (Weidemann)] (Diptera: Muscidae), and a flesh fly (Sarcophaga bullata Parker) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). M. raptorellus killed and successfully parasitized all five host species and produced an average 2.6 parasitoid progeny from each host. Host attack rates were highest on stable fly and lowest on horn fly; there were no differences among hosts in the total number of progeny produced. T. zealandicus killed larvae of all fly host species in similar numbers, but parasitism was most successful on H. aenescens and S. bullata and least successful on horn fly and house fly hosts. Significantly more parasitoid progeny emerged from S. bullata (10.2 parasitoids per host) than the other hosts; only 2.5 progeny were produced from parasitized horn fly hosts. Most of the killed puparia that produced neither adult flies nor parasitoids ("duds") contained dead parasitoids; in house fly, stable fly, and horn fly hosts, >30% of these dudded pupae contained adult wasps that failed to eclose. T. nigra successfully parasitized pupae of all host species except house fly and was most successful on stable fly. Significantly more parasitoid progeny emerged from S. bullata (30.6 parasitoids per host) than the other hosts; only 5.7 progeny were produced from horn fly hosts.

Parasite control in calves and growing heifers.

Parasite control in calves and growing heifers results in animals that grow faster and remain healthier. Control programs revolve around reducing the parasites (infective stages) in the environment. In confinement, sanitation removes or reduces the number of infective stages (oocysts, cysts, and infective larvae) and the infection rate. On pasture one must resort to pasture management and parasite removal. The mites and lice are generally controlled by reducing or removing the populations on the animals, preventing the spread. Environmental control and manure management impact the fly populations.