Measurement of resistance-area product by transcranial Doppler: An alternative tool for cognitive screening in hypertensive on drug treatment?

Introduction: Arterial hypertrophy and remodeling are adaptive responses present in systemic arterial hypertension that can result in silent ischemia and neurodegeneration, compromising brain connections and cognitive performance (CP). However, CP is affected differently over time, so traditional screening methods may become less sensitive in assessing certain cognitive domains. The study aimed to evaluate whether cerebrovascular hemodynamic parameters can serve as a tool for cognitive screening in hypertensive without clinically manifest cognitive decline. Methods: Participants were allocated into groups: non-hypertensive (n = 30) [group 1], hypertensive with systolic blood pressure (SBP) < 140 and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) < 90 mmHg (n = 54) [group 2] and hypertensive with SBP ≥ 140 or DBP ≥ 90 (n = 31) [group 3]. Measurements of blood pressure and middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity were obtained from digital plethysmography and transcranial Doppler. For the cognitive assessment, the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and a broad neuropsychological battery were applied. Results: Patients in groups 2 and 3 show no significant differences in most of the clinical-epidemiological variables or pulsatility index (p = 0.361), however compared to group 1 and 2, patients in group 3 had greater resistance-area product [RAP] (1.7 [±0.7] vs. 1.2 [±0.2], p < 0.001). There was a negative correlation between RAP, episodic memory (r = -0.277, p = 0.004) and cognitive processing speed (r = -0.319, p = 0.001). Conclusion: RAP reflects the real cerebrovascular resistance, regardless of the direct action of antihypertensive on the microcirculation, and seems to be a potential alternative tool for cognitive screening in hypertensive.

Translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and validity of the Brazilian version of the Cognitive Function Instrument.

Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) is defined as a self-perception of a progressive cognitive impairment, which is not detected objectively through neuropsychological tests. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study developed the Cognitive Function Instrument (CFI) to evaluate individuals with SCD. The CFI consists of two versions, namely, a self-report and a partner report. Objective: This study aimed to translate CFI into Brazilian Portuguese, perform a cross-cultural adaptation, and validate the Brazilian version. Methods: The translation and transcultural adaptation process consisted of six stages, and the preliminary version was answered by a sample of individuals recruited among the patients' caregivers from a cognitive neurology outpatient clinic. Finally, the final Brazilian version of the CFI was applied to a sample of nondemented older adults to validate the instrument, which was divided into with and without SCD, according to the answer "yes" for the question: "Do you feel like your memory is becoming worse?". Results: The final version of CFI showed a high level of acceptability as an assessment tool in nondemented older adults. Participants with SCD had higher scores in the CFI self-report compared with those without complaints. In the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the area under the curve of the CFI self-report was 0.865 (95% confidence interval 0.779-0.951), and the cutoff score of 2.0 was the one that best distinguished the SCD group from the control group, with a sensitivity of 73.3% and a specificity of 81.5%. Conclusions: CFI proved to be an instrument with good accuracy and easy applicability to identify older adults with SCD.

O declínio cognitivo subjetivo (DCS) é definido como uma autopercepção de um comprometimento cognitivo progressivo, não detectado objetivamente por meio de testes neuropsicológicos. O Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study desenvolveu o instrumento de função cognitiva (IFC) para avaliar indivíduos com DCS. O IFC existe em duas versões, uma do paciente e outra do acompanhante. Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi traduzir para o português brasileiro, fazer uma adaptação transcultural e validar a versão brasileira do IFC. Métodos: O processo de tradução e adaptação transcultural consistiu em seis etapas, e a versão preliminar foi respondida por uma amostra de voluntários recrutados entre os cuidadores de pacientes de um ambulatório de Neurologia Cognitiva. Por fim, a versão brasileira final do IFC foi aplicada a idosos sem demência, que foram divididos naqueles com e sem DCS de acordo com a resposta "sim" à questão: "Você sente que a sua memória está piorando?". Resultados: A versão final do IFC mostrou alto nível de aceitabilidade como ferramenta de avaliação em idosos sem demência. Os participantes com DCS tiveram pontuações mais altas na versão do paciente em comparação com aqueles sem queixas. Nas análises da curva característica de operação do receptor (ROC), a área sobre a curva da versão do paciente foi de 0,865 (intervalo de confiança [IC95%] 0,779­0,951) e a pontuação de corte de 2,0 foi a que melhor distinguiu o grupo com DCS dos controles, com sensibilidade de 73,3% e especificidade de 81,5%. Conclusões: O IFC mostrou-se um instrumento de boa acurácia e de fácil aplicabilidade para identificar idosos com DCS.

Evaluation of cerebral autoregulation performance in patients with arterial hypertension on drug treatment.

Cerebral autoregulation (AR) keeps cerebral blood flow constant despite fluctuations in systemic arterial pressure. The final common AR pathway is made up of vasomotor adjustments of cerebrovascular resistance mediated by arterioles. Structural and functional changes in the arteriolar wall arise with age and systemic arterial hypertension. This study evaluated whether AR is impaired in hypertensive patients and whether this impairment differs with disease control. Three groups of patients were prospectively compared: hypertensive patients under treatment with systolic blood pressure (SBP) <140 and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) <90 mm Hg (n = 54), hypertensive patients under treatment with SBP > 140 or DBP > 90 mm Hg (n = 31), and normotensive volunteers (n = 30). Simultaneous measurements of cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) and BP were obtained by digital plethysmography and transcranial Doppler, and the AR index (ARI) was defined according to the step response to spontaneous fluctuations in BP. Compared to the uncontrolled hypertension, the normotensive individuals were younger (age 43.42 ± 11.14, P < .05) and had a lower resistance-area product (1.17 ± 0.24, P < .05), although age and greater arteriolar stiffness did not affect the CBFV mean of hypertensive patients, whether controlled or uncontrolled (62.85 × 58.49 × 58.30 cm/s, P = .29), most likely because their ARIs were not compromised (5.54 × 5.91 × 5.88, P = .6). Hypertensive patients under treatment, regardless of their BP control, have intact AR capacity.

Systemic arterial hypertension and cognition in adults: effects on executive functioning.

BACKGROUND: Central nervous system changes associated to systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) are progressive and may cause negative effects on cognitive performance. The objective of this study was to investigate the relation between SAH and the components of executive functions (EF), inhibitory control (IC), updating and shifting, comparing a control group (without SAH) to patients with SAH, in two levels of severity. METHODS: The protocol included the following tests to evaluate EF components: T.O.V.A. Test (IC), Backward Digit Span from Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III), Phonemic and Semantic Verbal Fluency (updating), and Trail Making Test Part B (shifting). RESULTS: A total of 204 participants was included: 56 from the Control Group (CG), 87 SAH stage 1, and 61 SAH stage 2. The groups were not different for age (52.37±12.29) and education (10.98±4.06). As to controlled blood pressure (BP), duration of hypertension treatment and number of drugs, the SAH 2 group had a worse BP control, longer duration of hypertension treatment and use of more drugs when compared to the SAH 1. The findings revealed that patients with more severe hypertension presented worse performance in updating (Backward Digit Span, phonemic and semantics VF) and shifting (Trail Making Test Part B). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that patients with SAH have a significant impairment in EF, more specifically in updating and shifting. Besides that, such damage may be directly proportional to the severity of SAH. It is suggested that future studies include neuroimaging exams to exclude possible cerebrovascular diseases.

Systemic arterial hypertension and cognition in adults: effects on executive functioning / Hipertensão arterial sistêmica e cognição em adultos: efeitos no funcionamento executivo

ABSTRACT Background: Central nervous system changes associated to systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) are progressive and may cause negative effects on cognitive performance. The objective of this study was to investigate the relation between SAH and the components of executive functions (EF), inhibitory control (IC), updating and shifting, comparing a control group (without SAH) to patients with SAH, in two levels of severity. Methods: The protocol included the following tests to evaluate EF components: T.O.V.A. Test (IC), Backward Digit Span from Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III), Phonemic and Semantic Verbal Fluency (updating), and Trail Making Test Part B (shifting). Results: A total of 204 participants was included: 56 from the Control Group (CG), 87 SAH stage 1, and 61 SAH stage 2. The groups were not different for age (52.37±12.29) and education (10.98±4.06). As to controlled blood pressure (BP), duration of hypertension treatment and number of drugs, the SAH 2 group had a worse BP control, longer duration of hypertension treatment and use of more drugs when compared to the SAH 1. The findings revealed that patients with more severe hypertension presented worse performance in updating (Backward Digit Span, phonemic and semantics VF) and shifting (Trail Making Test Part B). Conclusion: The results suggest that patients with SAH have a significant impairment in EF, more specifically in updating and shifting. Besides that, such damage may be directly proportional to the severity of SAH. It is suggested that future studies include neuroimaging exams to exclude possible cerebrovascular diseases.

RESUMO Introdução: As alterações do sistema nervoso central associadas à hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS) são progressivas e podem ocasionar efeitos negativos no desempenho cognitivo. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a relação entre a HAS e os componentes das funções executivas (FE), controle inibitório (CI), atualização e alternância, comparando um grupo controle (sem HAS) a pacientes com HAS, em dois níveis de gravidade. Métodos: O protocolo incluiu os seguintes testes para avaliar os componentes das FE: T.O.V.A. Test (CI), Dígitos Ordem Indireta da Escala de Inteligência Wechsler para Adultos (Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale - WAIS-III), Fluência Verbal fonêmica e semântica (atualização) e Teste de Trilhas parte B (alternância). Resultados: Foram incluídos 204 participantes, sendo 56 do Grupo Controle (GC), 87 HAS estágio 1 (HAS 1) e 61 de HAS estágio 2 (HAS 2). Os grupos não foram diferentes em relação à idade (52,37±12,29) e escolaridade (10,98±4,06). Em relação à pressão arterial (PA) controlada, tempo de tratamento da HAS e número de medicações, o grupo HAS 2 apresentou pior controle de PA, mais tempo de tratamento da HAS e uso de maior número de medicações quando comparado ao grupo HAS 1. Os achados revelaram que os pacientes com HAS em estágio mais grave apresentaram pior desempenho nos testes de alternância (Teste de Trilhas parte B) e atualização (Dígitos Ordem Indireta, FV fonêmica e semântica). Conclusão: Esses resultados sugerem que pacientes com a HAS possuem prejuízo significativo em FE, especificamente em alternância e atualização, e que esse prejuízo pode ser diretamente proporcional à gravidade da HAS. Sugere-se que, em estudos futuros, incluam-se exames de neuroimagem com o objetivo de excluir possíveis doenças cerebrovasculares.

Executive function in systemic arterial hypertension: A systematic review.

Systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) may be associated with worse cognitive performance, especially in tasks that evaluate the executive functions (EF). OBJECTIVE: we aimed to review the evidence regarding which components of executive functions are most affected in adults with SAH. METHODS: this systematic review used the PRISMA statement for searching Pubmed, Scielo and Lilacs databases with the keywords "executive function OR executive functioning AND hypertension". RESULTS: EF tasks were divided into shifting, inhibitory control and updating. A total of 9 cross-sectional and 3 longitudinal studies were selected. Only 3 studies did not report worse performance among SAH patients on EF tasks when compared to normotensive controls. The measures of shifting and inhibitory control were the most frequently investigated and reported as altered among SAH individuals, assessed mainly by the Stroop Test and Trail-Making Test part B, respectively. CONCLUSION: inhibitory control and shifting are the EF components most influenced by SAH. The results of this review may contribute to the devising of hypotheses about mechanisms underlying these cognitive impairments.

A hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS) pode estar relacionada com pior desempenho cognitivo, principalmente em tarefas que avaliam as funções executivas (FE). OBJETIVO: este artigo teve como objetivo revisar as evidências sobre quais componentes das FE são mais afetadas em adultos com HAS. METÓDOS: esta revisão sistemática utilizou a metodologia PRISMA para buscas nas bases de dados Pubmed, Scielo e Lilacs com as palavras chaves "função executivas OU funcionamento executivo E hipertensão". RESULTADOS: as tarefas foram divididas em alternância, controle inibitório e atualização. Foram selecionados 9 estudos transversais e 3 longitudinais. Apenas 3 estudos não relataram pior desempenho entre os pacientes com HAS em tarefa de FE quando comparados aos controles normotensos. As medidas de alternância e controle inibitório foram as mais frequentemente investigadas e relatadas como alteradas entre os indivíduos com HAS, avaliadas principalmente pelo Stroop Test e Teste de Trilhas parte B, respectivamente. CONCLUSÃO: o controle inibitório e a alternância são os componentes da FE mais influenciados pela HAS. Os resultados desta revisão podem contribuir para a elaboração de hipóteses sobre mecanismos subjacentes a esses comprometimentos cognitivos.

Executive function in systemic arterial hypertension: A systematic review / Função executiva na hipertensão arterial sistêmica: uma revisão sistemática

ABSTRACT Systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) may be associated with worse cognitive performance, especially in tasks that evaluate the executive functions (EF). Objective: we aimed to review the evidence regarding which components of executive functions are most affected in adults with SAH. Methods: this systematic review used the PRISMA statement for searching Pubmed, Scielo and Lilacs databases with the keywords "executive function OR executive functioning AND hypertension". Results: EF tasks were divided into shifting, inhibitory control and updating. A total of 9 cross-sectional and 3 longitudinal studies were selected. Only 3 studies did not report worse performance among SAH patients on EF tasks when compared to normotensive controls. The measures of shifting and inhibitory control were the most frequently investigated and reported as altered among SAH individuals, assessed mainly by the Stroop Test and Trail-Making Test part B, respectively. Conclusion: inhibitory control and shifting are the EF components most influenced by SAH. The results of this review may contribute to the devising of hypotheses about mechanisms underlying these cognitive impairments.

RESUMO A hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS) pode estar relacionada com pior desempenho cognitivo, principalmente em tarefas que avaliam as funções executivas (FE). Objetivo: este artigo teve como objetivo revisar as evidências sobre quais componentes das FE são mais afetadas em adultos com HAS. Metódos: esta revisão sistemática utilizou a metodologia PRISMA para buscas nas bases de dados Pubmed, Scielo e Lilacs com as palavras chaves "função executivas OU funcionamento executivo E hipertensão". Resultados: as tarefas foram divididas em alternância, controle inibitório e atualização. Foram selecionados 9 estudos transversais e 3 longitudinais. Apenas 3 estudos não relataram pior desempenho entre os pacientes com HAS em tarefa de FE quando comparados aos controles normotensos. As medidas de alternância e controle inibitório foram as mais frequentemente investigadas e relatadas como alteradas entre os indivíduos com HAS, avaliadas principalmente pelo Stroop Test e Teste de Trilhas parte B, respectivamente. Conclusão: o controle inibitório e a alternância são os componentes da FE mais influenciados pela HAS. Os resultados desta revisão podem contribuir para a elaboração de hipóteses sobre mecanismos subjacentes a esses comprometimentos cognitivos.