Higher moral obligations of tolerance toward other minorities: an extra burden on stigmatized groups.

In four experiments, we tested whether members of stigmatized groups are expected to be more tolerant toward other minorities than members of non-stigmatized groups and assessed the consequences of disconfirming those expectancies. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that majority group members expected members of a stigmatized group to be more tolerant toward immigrants, particularly when the stigmatized minority was perceived as having overcome the negative consequences of its victimization. When this tolerance expectation was disconfirmed, stigmatized group members were judged more immoral than members of a non-stigmatized group that held the same intolerant attitudes. Experiments 3 and 4 showed that these effects were driven by the belief that stigmatized groups should derive benefits from their suffering. These findings suggest that stigmatized groups are judged according to stricter moral standards than non-stigmatized groups because majority group members need to make meaning of the undeserved suffering experienced by victims of social stigma.

Influence of the social context on use of surgical-lengthening and group-empowering coping strategies among people with dwarfism.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the role that social contextual factors exert on the way people with disproportionate short stature (dwarfism) cope with the negative consequences of discrimination. METHOD: Using multigroup structural equation modeling, we compare the coping process of people with dwarfism from Spain (N = 63) and the USA (N = 145), two countries that differ in the role played by organizations offering support to people with dwarfism. RESULTS: In Spain, where organizational support is recent, a coping approach aimed at achieving integration with the majority group through limb-lengthening surgery prevails; in the USA, where the long-standing organization of people with dwarfism encourages pride in being a "little person" and positive intragroup contact, a coping strategy based on empowering the minority group dominates. CONCLUSIONS: Both strategies, each in its own context, are effective at protecting psychological well-being from the negative consequences of stigmatization; however, they exert their positive effects through different processes.

Abandonar el Tabaco: Meta-análisis y Modelo de Ecuaciones Estructurales desde la Teoría de la Conducta Planificada / Giving up Smoking: Meta-analysis and Structural Equation Model from the Theory of Planned Behavior

Los meta-análisis sobre la Teoría de la conducta planificada (TCP) no se han aplicado al abandono del tabaco pese a que progresivamente se incrementa el número de estudios primarios. Nosotros llevamos a cabo un meta-análisis de 121 tamaños del efecto (ES) sobre la TCP y el abandono del tabaco y examinamos las influencias de cuatro potenciales variables moderadoras. Se obtuvieron ES globales con valores medios (ES = .28 para intenciónconducta, ES = .33 para control percibido-intención, ES = .29 para norma subjetiva-intención) o grandes (ES = .40 para actitud-intención). Los resultados de los análisis de moderadores mostraron que el intervalo de tiempo entre intención y conducta, la correspondencia de la escala, y la edad de los participantes moderaban el ES. Finalmente, la matriz de correlaciones conjunta fue usada como entrada para análisis de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM), poniendo a prueba un modelo más amplio. La TCP explica efectivamente la intención y la conducta de dejar de fumar (AU)

Meta-analyses of the Theory of Planned Behavior have not been applied to smoking cessation despite that progressively increases the number of primary studies. We conducted a meta-analysis of 121 effect sizes (ES) on Theory of Planned Behavior and smoking cessation and examined the influences of four potential moderator variables. Global ES have been obtained, with medium (ES = .28 for intention-behaviour, ES = .33 for perceived control-intention, ES = .29 for subjective norm-intention) or large (ES = .40 for attitude-intention) values. Results of moderator analyses showed that time interval between intention and behaviour; scale correspondence, and participants' age moderated the ES. Finally, the pooled correlation matrix has been used as an input for structural equation model analyses (SEM), testing a wider model. The theory effectively explained smoking cessation intention and behaviour (AU)

Rejected and excluded forevermore, but even more devoted: irrevocable ostracism intensifies loyalty to the group among identity-fused persons.

When people are ostrasized (i.e., rejected and excluded) by either an outgroup or an ingroup, they may either withdraw or engage in compensatory activities designed to reaffirm their social identity as a group member. The authors proposed here that individual differences in identity fusion (an index of familial orientation toward the group) would moderate the tendency for people to display such compensatory activity. Consistent with this reasoning, the results of four experiments showed that irrevocable ostracism increased endorsement of extreme, pro-group actions (fighting and dying for the ingroup) among fused persons but not among nonfused persons. This effect emerged when an outgroup ostracized fused individuals due either to their nationality (Experiment 1) or their personal preferences (Experiment 2). Similarly, ostracism by the ingroup amplified the tendency for fused persons to both endorse extreme pro-group actions, refuse to leave the group (Experiment 3), and donate money to an ingroup member (Experiment 4). Finally, compensatory activities emerged even when ostracism was based on being "too good" for the group, suggesting that a desire for self-enhancement does not mediate such activities (Experiment 4).

The Effect of Work Discrimination on the Well-being of Obese People

Obesity, a serious health problem affecting millions of people in industrialized societies, has also a social dimension that has been mostly ignored by the medical and social sciences. In order to prove that discrimination in the workplace has a bearing on the well-being of obese people, an experimental study was designed in which 110 obese patients of a big Spanish hospital who were at the moment following a weight reduction treatment took part. As expected, a negative relation between discrimination and well-being was found and, in addition, this relationship was mediated by participants’ work skills. Stereotype threat effects for obese people in the workplace were also considered (AU)

La obesidad representa un importante problema de salud que afecta a millones de perso- na en los países industrializados. Esta condición, además de los problemas médicos que produce, tiene una dimensión social muy importante pero que no ha recibido la misma atención que otros aspectos de esta epidemia. En este estudio, en el cual participaron 110 pacientes obesos de hospitales españoles, se analiza cómo la discriminación el trabajo afecta el bienestar de las personas obesas. Mediante un diseño experimental se demuestra que la discriminación está asociada de forma negativa con el bienestar. También se pone de manifiesto que la relación entre discriminación y bienestar está mediada por las habilidades laborales de las personas obesas. Finalmente, se discute el posible efecto de la amenaza del estereotipo para las personas obesas en el área del trabajo (AU)

Identity fusion and self-sacrifice: arousal as a catalyst of pro-group fighting, dying, and helping behavior.

Identity fusion is a feeling of oneness with the group that induces people to tether their feelings of personal agency to the group. We accordingly proposed that increasing the agency of fused persons by elevating autonomic arousal would amplify their tendency to endorse and actually enact pro-ingroup behavior. In 4 experiments, increasing autonomic arousal through physical exercise elevated heart rates and fusion-unrelated activity among all participants. Fused participants, however, uniquely responded to arousal by translating elevated agency into endorsement of pro-group activity. These effects emerged both for endorsement of extreme behaviors for the group and for overt behaviors, specifically helping behavior (donating money to needy in-group members), and the speed with which participants raced a fusion-related avatar. The effects also generalized across 3 different arousal inductions (dodgeball, wind sprints, and Exercycle). Finally, fusion-related agency partially mediated the interactive effects of fusion and arousal on pro-group behavior. Apparently, autonomic arousal increases agency and identity fusion channels increased agency into pro-group behavior.

Identity fusion: the interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior.

The authors propose that when people become fused with a group, their personal and social identities become functionally equivalent. Two hypotheses follow from this proposition. First, activating either personal or social identities of fused persons should increase their willingness to endorse extreme behaviors on behalf of the group. Second, because personal as well as social identities support group-related behaviors of fused persons, the 2 forms of identity may combine synergistically, fostering exceptionally high levels of extreme behavior. Support for these hypotheses came from 5 preliminary studies and 3 experiments. In particular, fused persons were more willing to fight or die for the group than nonfused persons, especially when their personal or social identities had been activated. The authors conclude that among fused persons, both the personal and social self may energize and direct group-related behavior. Implications for related theoretical approaches and for conceptualizing the relationship between personal identities, social identities, and group processes are discussed.

El engagement como resultado de la socialización organizacional / Engagement as a consequence of organizational socialization

In the last years, the research on organizational socialization has focused on the study of the contents of the socialization, having stressed that is fundamentally a learning process in which the employee adopts an active role. Following the model of Taormina, we distinguish four domains of learning: training, understanding, support of the co-workers and perspective of future. Many studies have shown that the learning of the new workers is associated with a greater success in the socialization. In this paper we set out to deepen in the empirical study of the relationships among the domains and engagement. The sample is composed by 514 participants pertaining to 22 organizations from different sectors of activity and size. Results indicate that the domains training, understanding and perspective of future are positively related to engagement (AU)

En los últimos años, la investigación sobre socialización organizacional ha centrado su atención en el estudio de los contenidos de la socialización, recalcando que es fundamentalmente un proceso de aprendizaje en el que el empleado adopta un papel activo. Siguiendo el modelo de Taormina distinguimos cuatro dominios de aprendizaje: entrenamiento, comprensión, apoyo de los compañeros y perspectivas de futuro. Numerosos estudios han mostrado que el aprendizaje de los nuevos está asociado con un mayor éxito en la socialización. En este trabajo nos proponemos profundizar en el estudio empírico de las relaciones entre estos dominios y el engagement. La muestra está formada por 514 participantes pertenecientes a 22 organizaciones de distintos sectores de actividad y diferente tamaño. Los resultados nos indican que los dominios entrenamiento, comprensión y perspectivas de futuro están relacionados positivamente con el engagement (AU)

Evolution of gender stereotypes in Spain: traits and roles.

The aim of this study is twofold: to determine whether (and how) gender stereotypes have changed over time through a comparison of two different sets of data collected in 1993 (N=1255) and 2001 (N=1255) from a representative sample of the Spanish population, and to examine the relation between gender traits and roles and its stability over time. In addition, special attention is paid to the psychometric properties of the measures of gender traits and roles used in the study. The content of gender stereotypes was found to remain stable over the target period of time, confirming the classical typology (a higher assignment of expressive-communal traits to women and of instrumental-agentic traits to men). The structure of the gender-role questionnaire allows us to distinguish between family-role and work-role stereotyping. Gender-role stereotyping shows a marked decline between 1993 and 2001, a result that contrasts with the stability of trait-role stereotyping. The fact that a very low correlation is observed at the two time points between these two components of gender stereotyping strongly suggests their independence.

Evolution of Gender Stereotypes in Spain: Traits and Roles

The aim of this study is twofold: to determine whether (and how) gender stereotypes have changed over time through a comparison of two different sets of data collected in1993 (N = 1255) and 2001 (N = 1255) from a representative sample of the Spanish population, and to examine the relation between gender traits and roles and its stability over time. In addition, special attention is paid to the psychometric properties of the measures of gender traits and roles used in the study. The content of gender stereotypes was found to remain stable over the target period of time, confirming the classical typology (a higher assignment of expressive-communal traits to women and of instrumental-agentic traits to men). The structure of the gender-role questionnaire allows us to distinguish between family-role and work-role stereotyping. Gender-role stereotyping shows a marked decline between 1993 and 2001, a result that contrasts with the stability of trait-role stereotyping. The fact that a very low correlation is observed at the two time points between these two components of gender stereotyping strongly suggests their independence (AU)

En este estudio se persigue un doble objetivo: comprobar la evolución de los estereotipos de género en dos aplicaciones, efectuadas en 1993 (N = 1255) y 2001 (N = 1255), ambas con muestras representativas de la población española, y analizar la relación que existe entre rasgos y roles, examinando si se han producido cambios en esa relación con el paso del tiempo. Asimismo, se analizan las propiedades psicométricas de las medidas de rasgo y de rol empleadas. Los resultados muestran que el contenido de los estereotipos de rasgo no se ha modificado, confirmándose la clásica tipología en la que se asignan más rasgos expresivo-comunales a las mujeres que a los hombres y, por el contrario, más rasgos instrumental-agentes a los hombres. La estructura del cuestionario de roles, permite diferenciar entre estereotipia de rol familiar y estereotipia de rol laboral. Al comparar la evolución de los estereotipos en este periodo, se observa un descenso en la estereotipia de la población española, más acusada en el componente de rol que en el de rasgo. La correlación entre ambos componentes es muy baja o no significativa, sin que se observen cambios importantes en la evolución de esa relación. Estos resultados parecen corroborarla independencia entre los componentes de rasgo y de rol (AU)

Women's access to managerial positions: an experimental study of leadership styles and gender.

This study attempts to test one of the explanations of the scarce representation of women in managerial positions, specifically the one advanced by "role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders" (Eagly & Karau, 2002), which appeals to the fact that women get unfavorable evaluations if they adopt male-stereotypical leadership styles. One-hundred and thirty-six undergraduate students participated in an experiment with a 2 (Male-stereotypical vs. Female-stereotypical leadership style) x 2 (Male vs. Female leader) design. Dependent variables were leader's competence, efficacy, and evaluation in a series of traits. It was found that, regardless of sex, the leaders were considered more competent and efficient, and were evaluated more favorably, when they adopted stereotypically feminine leadership styles. Implications of these findings for women's underrepresentation as leaders in management top positions worldwide are discussed.

Relations and effects of transformational leadership: a comparative analysis with traditional leadership styles.

This study has two main goals: (a) to compare the relationship between transformational leadership and other important leadership styles (i.e., democratic versus autocratic or relations- and task-oriented leadership) and (b) to compare the effects of transformational leadership and the other styles on some important organizational outcomes such as employees' satisfaction and performance. For this purpose, a sample of 147 participants, working in 35 various work-teams, was used. Results show high correlations between transformational leadership, relations-oriented, democratic, and task-oriented leadership. On the other hand, according to the literature, transformational leadership, especially high levels, significantly increases the percentage of variance accounted for by other leadership styles in relevant organizational outcome variables (subordinates' performance, satisfaction and extra effort).

Relations and effects of transformational leadership: a comparative analysis with traditional leadership styles

This study has two main goals: (a) to compare the relationship between transformational leadership and other important leadership styles (i.e., democratic versus autocratic or relations- and task oriented leadership) and (b) to compare the effects of transformational leadership and the other styles on some important organizational outcomes such as employees’ satisfaction and performance. For this purpose, a sample of 147 participants, working in 35 various work-teams, was used.Results show high correlations between transformational leadership, relations-oriented, democratic, and task-oriented leadership. On the other hand, according to the literature, transformational leadership, especially high levels, significantly increases the percentage of variance accounted for by other leadership styles in relevant organizational outcome variables (subordinates' performance, satisfaction and extra effort) (AU)

El presente trabajo persigue dos objetivos principales: (a) comparar las relaciones del liderazgo transformacional con otros estilos de liderazgo clásicos en la literatura organizacional, tales como el liderazgo democrático versus autocrático o el orientado a la tarea-orientado a las relaciones y (b) comparar los efectos del liderazgo transformacional y los estilos de liderazgo mencionados sobre la satisfacción y la eficacia de los empleados. Para cumplir dichos objetivos se seleccionó una muestra de 147 participantes que trabajaban en 35 equipos de trabajo diferentes. Los resultados demuestran la existencia de correlaciones muy elevadas entre el liderazgo transformacional, el liderazgo orientado a las relaciones, el liderazgo democrático y el liderazgo orientado a la tarea. También se encuentra que, tal como predice la literatura, el liderazgo transformacional, sobre todo en niveles altos, aumenta significativamente el porcentaje de varianza explicado por los otros estilos en algunas variables de resultado organizacional importantes (la ejecución de subordinados, satisfacción y esfuerzo extra) (AU)

Algunas claves sobre el techo de cristal en las organizaciones / Some clues about glass ceiling in organizations

El trabajo que aquí se presenta forma parte de una investigación más amplia cuyo objetivo fundamental es investigar una serie de variables psicosociales, organizacionales y estructurales con el fin de explicar la limitada presencia de mujeres en puestos de liderazgo. Nuestro interés en este artículo se centra en conocer la capacidad predictiva de dos variables psicosociales (valores y rasgos estereotípicos de género) y cinco variables organizacionales (satisfacción experimentada en el trabajo, identificación con la organización, conflicto experimentado en el trabajo, disposición a invertir tiempo y esfuerzo para ascender en la organización y percepción de interferencia del trabajo en la vida familiar) para distinguir entre personas del mismo sexo que desempeñan roles diferenciados en la organización (directivos vs. subordinados) y entre personas de diferente sexo que desempeñan un mismo rol. La investigación se llevó a cabo en 35 equipos de trabajo de organizaciones dedicadas a diferentes actividades. Se aplica la metodología del análisis discriminante. Se discuten las implicaciones de investigar el techo de cristal por vías alternativas a las tradicionales y los resultados obtenidos de cara al acceso de las mujeres a los puestos de responsabilidad en las organizaciones (AU)

This paper is part of a larger research having as the main goal the study of a set of psycho-social, organizational and structural variables that could explain the reduced number of women working in leadership positions. In order to check differences in job status(people of the same gender playing different roles) and gender differences (people of different gender playing the same role), this paper focuses on the predictive power of two psycho-social variables, i.e., values and stereotyped gender traits and five organizational variables, i.e., job satisfaction, identification with the organization, conflicts in the willingness to invest time and effort in getting promoted, and perceived work interference in family life. Thirty five working teams belonging to various organizations in different industries participated in the study. A discriminant analysis was performed. Implications of the study of glass ceiling by means of methods other than the traditional ones and results yielded by this study, are discussed vis-à-vis the access of women to positions of responsibility in organizations (AU)

La identificación en las organizaciones y su relación con la prototipicidad y el conflicto entre grupos profesionales / Identification in organizations and its relationship with prototypicality and conflict between organizational groups

Se estudia el proceso de identificación de 282 trabajadores representantes de un importante y numeroso grupo profesional de una organización universitaria, con el fin de averiguar si ese proceso genera una identidad con la organización en su conjunto o se limita al grupo profesional. Los resultados muestran la existencia de una fuerte relación de rivalidad con otro grupo profesional de la misma organización, que se evidencia en la nitidez y diferenciación de los prototipos grupales, lo que descarta la posibilidad de una identificación organizacional propiamente dicha. A su vez, el grado de prototipicidad guarda relación con la intensidad de la actitud negativa hacia el grupo rival y alerta de la probabilidad de un conflicto intraorganizacional

The scope and nature of the identification process of 282 workers representative of an important professional group of a university organization is analyzed in an attempt to ascertain if they identify mainly with their organization as a whole or with their professional group. A strong rivalry between the group object of the study and another professional group of the same organization manifests itself through a remarkable differentiation of group prototypes, which precludes the possibility of an overarching, supraordinate organizational identification. In addition, the degree of group prototypicality is related to the intensity of the negative attitude toward the rival group and can be taken as a predictor of a likely intra-organizational conflict

[Identification in organizations and its relationship with prototypicality and conflict between organizational groups]. / La identificación en las organizaciones y su relación con la prototipicidad y el conflicto entre grupos profesionales.

The scope and nature of the identification process of 282 workers representative of an important professional group of a university organization is analyzed in an attempt to ascertain if they identify mainly with their organization as a whole or with their professional group. A strong rivalry between the group object of the study and another professional group of the same organization manifests itself through a remarkable differentiation of group prototypes, which precludes the possibility of an overarching, supraordinate organizational identification. In addition, the degree of group prototypicality is related to the intensity of the negative attitude toward the rival group and can be taken as a predictor of a likely intra-organizational conflict.

Estudios en las Apocynaceae Neotropicales VI: una nueva especie de Prestonia (Apocynaceae, Apocynoideae) para Brasil / Studies in Neotropical Apocynaceae VI: a new species of Prestonia (Apocynaceae, Apocynoideae) from Brazil

Uma nova espécie de Prestonia R. Br., endêmica dos estados do Acre e Amazonas, Brasil, é descrita e ilustrada e se discute as relações com taxas relacionadas.

A new species of Prestonia R. Br., endemic to the states of Acre and Amazonas, Brazil, is described and illustrated. In addition, the relationships with related taxas are discussed.

Individualism: one or many? / Individualismo: uno o muchos

It is contended that Individualism is something more than one of the poles of the I-C dimension. Furthermore: a) its meaning cannot be reduced to that of a mere self-ingroup conflict, and b) its function cannot be reduced to establishing cross cultural comparisons since it is also present at the subcultural level. 20 groups of about 10-12 subjects from eight different Autonomous Communities (regions) of Spain participated in the first phase of the research. They discussed freely on several I-C issues proposed by an interviewer (a member of the research team) in a semi-directed interview during an hour and a half. Eventually, a list of different statements was compiled from them and two equivalent pilot scales of about 164 items each were generated (forms A and B). 997 subjects (724 fe m a l e, 273 male) participated in a second phase. Most of them were University students (age mean of 22,6 years) and came from 8 different spanish regions. In group’s discussions appeared many issues different f rom those implied by the I-C dimension. The answers to the scales, in spite of the high homogeneity of the sample, reflected differences due to sex, age, geographical origin, intensity of religious fe e l i n g and position along the ideological continuum, among others. Several cluster analyses uncovered different combinations of answers to the Individualism facets, suggesting that Individualism is best conceived as a «multifaceted» phenomenon. In the light of these results, implications for further research are discussed (AU)

Se plantea que el individualismo es uno más de los polos de la dimensión I-C. Aun más, su sentido no se puede reducir al de un mero conflicto entre el individuo y el grupo y su función tampoco puede reducirse a las comparaciones transculturales, ya que las diferencias en individualismo están presentes a nivel subcultural. 20 grupos de alrededor 10-12 sujetos de 8 Comunidades Autónomas de España participaron en la primera fase de esta investigación. Discutieron libremente varias problemáticas del individualismo- colectivismo propuestas por un entrevistador del grupo de investigación en una entrevista semiestructurada durante una hora y media. Una lista de las diferentes afirmaciones formulada por los grupos se utilizo para conformar dos escalas piloto de alrededor 164 ítems cada una, formas A y B. 997 personas (724 mujeres, 273 hombres) participaron en una segunda fase. La mayoría de ellos eran estudiantes universitarios (media de edad 22,6 años) y provenían de 8 regiones españolas diferentes. En las discusiones de grupo emergieron diferentes problemáticas muy distintas de las implicadas por la dimensión Individualismo- Colectivismo. Las respuestas a las escalas, a pesar de la alta homogeneidad de la muestra reflejaron diferencias asociadas al sexo, la edad, el origen geográfico, la intensidad del sentimiento religioso y las posiciones ideológicas entre otras. Varios análisis de conglomerados descubrieron diferentes combinaciones de respuesta a las facetas del individualismo, lo que sugiere que el individualismo se puede concebir mejor como un fenómeno de «múltiples facetas». En base a estos resultados se analizan las implicaciones para posteriores estudios (AU)