The human VGLUT3-pT8I mutation elicits uneven striatal DA signaling, food or drug maladaptive consumption in male mice.

Cholinergic striatal interneurons (ChIs) express the vesicular glutamate transporter 3 (VGLUT3) which allows them to regulate the striatal network with glutamate and acetylcholine (ACh). In addition, VGLUT3-dependent glutamate increases ACh vesicular stores through vesicular synergy. A missense polymorphism, VGLUT3-p.T8I, was identified in patients with substance use disorders (SUDs) and eating disorders (EDs). A mouse line was generated to understand the neurochemical and behavioral impact of the p.T8I variant. In VGLUT3T8I/T8I male mice, glutamate signaling was unchanged but vesicular synergy and ACh release were blunted. Mutant male mice exhibited a reduced DA release in the dorsomedial striatum but not in the dorsolateral striatum, facilitating habit formation and exacerbating maladaptive use of drug or food. Increasing ACh tone with donepezil reversed the self-starvation phenotype observed in VGLUT3T8I/T8I male mice. Our study suggests that unbalanced dopaminergic transmission in the dorsal striatum could be a common mechanism between SUDs and EDs.

Cell-Type Specific Regulation of Cholesterogenesis by CYP46A1 Re-Expression in zQ175 HD Mouse Striatum.

Cholesterol metabolism dysregulation is associated with several neurological disorders. In Huntington's disease (HD), several enzymes involved in cholesterol metabolism are downregulated, among which the neuronal cholesterol 24-hydroxylase, CYP46A1, is of particular interest. The restoration of CYP46A1 expression in striatal neurons of HD mouse models is beneficial for motor behavior, cholesterol metabolism, transcriptomic activity, and alleviates neuropathological hallmarks induced by mHTT. Among the genes regulated after CYP46A1 restoration, those involved in cholesterol synthesis and efflux may explain the positive effect of CYP46A1 on cholesterol precursor metabolites. Since cholesterol homeostasis results from a fine-tuning between neurons and astrocytes, we quantified the distribution of key genes regulating cholesterol metabolism and efflux in astrocytes and neurons using in situ hybridization coupled with S100ß and NeuN immunostaining, respectively. Neuronal expression of CYP46A1 in the striatum of HD zQ175 mice increased key cholesterol synthesis driver genes (Hmgcr, Dhcr24), specifically in neurons. This effect was associated with an increase of the srebp2 transcription factor gene that regulates most of the genes encoding for cholesterol enzymes. However, the cholesterol efflux gene, ApoE, was specifically upregulated in astrocytes by CYP46A1, probably though a paracrine effect. In summary, the neuronal expression of CYP46A1 has a dual and specific effect on neurons and astrocytes, regulating cholesterol metabolism. The neuronal restoration of CYP46A1 in HD paves the way for future strategies to compensate for mHTT toxicity.

Altered Cholesterol Homeostasis in Huntington's Disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder caused by an expansion of the CAG repeat in the first exon of Huntingtin's gene. The associated neurodegeneration mainly affects the striatum and the cortex at early stages and progressively spreads to other brain structures. Targeting HD at its earlier stages is under intense investigation. Numerous drugs were tested, with a rate of success of only 3.5% approved molecules used as symptomatic treatment. The restoration of cholesterol metabolism, which is central to the brain homeostasis and strongly altered in HD, could be an interesting disease-modifying strategy. Cholesterol is an essential membrane component in the central nervous system (CNS); alterations of its homeostasis have deleterious consequences on neuronal functions. The levels of several sterols, upstream of cholesterol, are markedly decreased within the striatum of HD mouse model. Transcription of cholesterol biosynthetic genes is reduced in HD cell and mouse models as well as post-mortem striatal and cortical tissues from HD patients. Since the dynamic of brain cholesterol metabolism is complex, it is essential to establish the best method to target it in HD. Cholesterol, which does not cross the blood-brain-barrier, is locally synthesized and renewed within the brain. All cell types in the CNS synthesize cholesterol during development but as they progress through adulthood, neurons down-regulate their cholesterol synthesis and turn to astrocytes for their full supply. Cellular levels of cholesterol reflect the dynamic balance between synthesis, uptake and export, all integrated into the context of the cross talk between neurons and glial cells. In this review, we describe the latest advances regarding the role of cholesterol deregulation in neuronal functions and how this could be a determinant factor in neuronal degeneration and HD progression. The pathways and major mechanisms by which cholesterol and sterols are regulated in the CNS will be described. From this overview, we discuss the main clinical strategies for manipulating cholesterol metabolism in the CNS, and how to reinstate a proper balance in HD.

CYP46A1 gene therapy deciphers the role of brain cholesterol metabolism in Huntington's disease.

Dysfunctions in brain cholesterol homeostasis have been extensively related to brain disorders. The main pathway for brain cholesterol elimination is its hydroxylation into 24S-hydroxycholesterol by the cholesterol 24-hydrolase, CYP46A1. Increasing evidence suggests that CYP46A1 has a role in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative disorders, and that increasing its levels in the brain is neuroprotective. However, the mechanisms underlying this neuroprotection remain to be fully understood. Huntington's disease is a fatal autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by an abnormal CAG expansion in huntingtin's gene. Among the multiple cellular and molecular dysfunctions caused by this mutation, altered brain cholesterol homeostasis has been described in patients and animal models as a critical event in Huntington's disease. Here, we demonstrate that a gene therapy approach based on the delivery of CYP46A1, the rate-limiting enzyme for cholesterol degradation in the brain, has a long-lasting neuroprotective effect in Huntington's disease and counteracts multiple detrimental effects of the mutated huntingtin. In zQ175 Huntington's disease knock-in mice, CYP46A1 prevented neuronal dysfunctions and restored cholesterol homeostasis. These events were associated to a specific striatal transcriptomic signature that compensates for multiple mHTT-induced dysfunctions. We thus explored the mechanisms for these compensations and showed an improvement of synaptic activity and connectivity along with the stimulation of the proteasome and autophagy machineries, which participate to the clearance of mutant huntingtin (mHTT) aggregates. Furthermore, BDNF vesicle axonal transport and TrkB endosome trafficking were restored in a cellular model of Huntington's disease. These results highlight the large-scale beneficial effect of restoring cholesterol homeostasis in neurodegenerative diseases and give new opportunities for developing innovative disease-modifying strategies in Huntington's disease.