Social mindfulness and prosociality vary across the globe.

Humans are social animals, but not everyone will be mindful of others to the same extent. Individual differences have been found, but would social mindfulness also be shaped by one's location in the world? Expecting cross-national differences to exist, we examined if and how social mindfulness differs across countries. At little to no material cost, social mindfulness typically entails small acts of attention or kindness. Even though fairly common, such low-cost cooperation has received little empirical attention. Measuring social mindfulness across 31 samples from industrialized countries and regions (n = 8,354), we found considerable variation. Among selected country-level variables, greater social mindfulness was most strongly associated with countries' better general performance on environmental protection. Together, our findings contribute to the literature on prosociality by targeting the kind of everyday cooperation that is more focused on communicating benevolence than on providing material benefits.

Display clutter and its effects on visual attention distribution and financial risk judgment.

Display clutter is a widely studied phenomenon in ergonomics, where information density and other properties of task-relevant visualizations are related to effective user performance and visual attention. This paper examines the impact of clutter in the context of financial stock visualizations. Depending on their expertise, traders can use a variety of different cues to judge the current and future value of a stock and to assess its riskiness. In our study, two groups of participants (novices and experts) judge the riskiness of 28 pairs of stocks under two clutter conditions (low and high). Consistency of judgments and group concordance serve as measures for judgment performance, while mean fixation duration, fixation frequency, and transition matrix density are employed to capture visual attention. Our results reveal significant effects of display clutter and expertise on both the performance measures as well as the visual attention measures.

Prospect theory reflects selective allocation of attention.

There is a disconnect in the literature between analyses of risky choice based on cumulative prospect theory (CPT) and work on predecisional information processing. One likely reason is that for expectation models (e.g., CPT), it is often assumed that people behaved only as if they conducted the computations leading to the predicted choice and that the models are thus mute regarding information processing. We suggest that key psychological constructs in CPT, such as loss aversion and outcome and probability sensitivity, can be interpreted in terms of attention allocation. In two experiments, we tested hypotheses about specific links between CPT parameters and attentional regularities. Experiment 1 used process tracing to monitor participants' predecisional attention allocation to outcome and probability information. As hypothesized, individual differences in CPT's loss-aversion, outcome-sensitivity, and probability-sensitivity parameters (estimated from participants' choices) were systematically associated with individual differences in attention allocation to outcome and probability information. For instance, loss aversion was associated with the relative attention allocated to loss and gain outcomes, and a more strongly curved weighting function was associated with less attention allocated to probabilities. Experiment 2 manipulated participants' attention to losses or gains, causing systematic differences in CPT's loss-aversion parameter. This result indicates that attention allocation can to some extent cause choice regularities that are captured by CPT. Our findings demonstrate an as-if model's capacity to reflect characteristics of information processing. We suggest that the observed CPT-attention links can be harnessed to inform the development of process models of risky choice. (PsycINFO Database Record

Adding noise to the institution: an experimental welfare investigation of the contribution-based grouping mechanism.

Real-world institutions dealing with social dilemma situations are based on mechanisms that are rarely implemented without flaw. Usually real-world mechanisms are noisy and imprecise, that is, which we call 'fuzzy'. We therefore conducted a novel type of voluntary contributions experiment where we test a mechanism by varying its fuzziness. We focus on a range of fuzzy mechanisms we call 'meritocratic matching'. These mechanisms generalize the mechanism of 'contribution-based competitive grouping', and their basic function is to group players based on their contribution choices-i.e. high contributors with high contributors, and low contributors with low contributors. Theory predicts the following efficiency-equality tradeoff as a function of the mechanism's inherent fuzziness: high levels of fuzziness should lead to maximal inefficiency, but perfect equality; decreasing fuzziness is predicted to improve efficiency, but at the cost of growing inequality. The main finding of our experimental investigation is that, contrary to tradeoff predictions, less fuzziness increases both efficiency and equality. In fact, these unambiguous welfare gains are partially realized already at levels where the mechanism is too fuzzy for any high-efficiency outcome to even be a Nash equilibrium.

fNIRS derived hemodynamic signals and electrodermal responses in a sequential risk-taking task.

The study measured cortical hemodynamic signals and peripheral correlates of decision makers during a dynamic risky task, the Just One More task (JOM), in which the risky decision entails choosing whether to incrementally increase accumulated earnings at the risk of ruin (going bust ending up with nothing). Twenty subjects participated in multiple instantiations of this task in which the probability of ruin and size of the stakes varied. Physiological correlates were simultaneously quantified by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) over dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and electrodermal activity (EDA). First, in the task decision phase (i.e., when subjects are contemplating options before making a choice) probability of ruin had a dissociating effect on fNIRS and EDA. fNIRS derived DLPFC hemodynamic signals reflected a subjective value signal, correlating positively with individual risk attitude. Contrary, EDA reflected the probability of ruin in terms of a common affective measure, irrespective of individuals׳ risk attitude. Second, during the task outcome phase (i.e., the time after subjects have made a choice and observed the outcomes) fNIRS and EDA revealed opposite patterns. While fNIRS derived DLPFC hemodynamic signals were larger in response to gains, EDA signals were larger in response to losses; both patterns were statistically independent of individual risk attitude. Lastly, fNIRS derived DLPFC hemodynamic signals in the decision phase correlated positively with the mean round earnings, providing a measure of the quality of the individual decision-making performance. Together with the positive correlation with individual risk attitude, our findings indicate that fNIRS signals, but not EDA, could be taken as a useful method for studying individual risk attitude and task performance in dynamic risky decision-making.

Hemodynamic and affective correlates assessed during performance on the Columbia card task (CCT).

The study aimed to test the potential of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in combination with electrodermal activity (EDA) in a decision paradigm by means of the Columbia card task (CCT). The CCT is a dynamic decision task characterized by assessing subjects' risk-taking via eliciting voluntary stopping points in a series of incrementally increasingly risky choices. Using the combined fNIRS-EDA approach, we aim to examine the hemodynamic and affective correlates of both decision and outcome responses during performance on the CCT. Twenty healthy subjects completed the Cold and Hot CCT version while fNIRS over prefrontal cortex and EDA were recorded. Results showed that (1) in the decision phase fNIRS revealed larger total hemoglobin concentration changes [tHb] in the Cold as compared to the Hot CCT, whereas EDA revealed an opposite pattern with larger skin conductance responses (SCRs) to the Hot as compared to the Cold CCT. (2) No significant [tHb] signals or SCRs were found in the outcome phase. (3) Coherence calculations between fNIRS and EDA in the heart rate frequency showed a significant increase during the Hot as compared to the Cold CCT. Our findings designate fNIRS as suitable tool for monitoring decision-making processes. The combination of fNIRS and EDA demonstrates the potential of simultaneously assessing the interaction between hemodynamic and affective responses which can provide additional information concerning the relationship between these two physiological systems for various research areas.

Social value orientation: theoretical and measurement issues in the study of social preferences.

What motivates people when they make decisions and how those motivations are potentially entangled with concerns for others are central topics for the social, cognitive, and behavioral sciences. According to the postulate of narrow self-interest, decision makers have the goal of maximizing personal payoffs and are wholly indifferent to the consequences for others. The postulate of narrow self-interest-which has been influential in economics, psychology, and sociology-is precise and powerful but is often simply wrong. Its inadequacy is well known and efforts have been made to develop reliable and valid measurement methods to quantify the more nuanced social preferences that people really have. In this paper, we report on the emergence and development of the predominant conceptualization of social preferences in psychology: social value orientation (SVO). Second, we discuss the relationship between measurement and theory development of the SVO construct. We then provide an overview of the literature regarding measurement methods that have been used to assess individual variations in social preferences. We conclude with a comparative evaluation of the various measures and provide suggestions regarding the measures' constructive use in building psychologically realistic theories of people's social preferences.

Default options and neonatal resuscitation decisions.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether presenting delivery room management options as defaults influences decisions to resuscitate extremely premature infants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adult volunteers recruited from the world wide web were randomised to receive either resuscitation or comfort care as the delivery room management default option for a hypothetical delivery of a 23-week gestation infant. Participants were required to check a box to opt out of the default. The primary outcome measure was the proportion of respondents electing resuscitation. Data were analysed using χ(2) tests and multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Participants who were told the delivery room management default option was resuscitation were more likely to opt for resuscitation (OR 6.54 95% CI 3.85 to 11.11, p<0.001). This effect persisted on multivariate regression analysis (OR 7.00, 95% CI 3.97 to 12.36, p<0.001). Female gender, being married or in a committed relationship, being highly religious, experiences with prematurity, and favouring sanctity of life were significantly associated with decisions to resuscitate. DISCUSSION: Presenting delivery room options for extremely premature infants as defaults exert a significant effect on decision makers. The information structure of the choice task may act as a subtle form of manipulation. Further, this effect may operate in ways that a decision maker is not aware of and this raises questions of patient autonomy. CONCLUSION: Presenting delivery room options for extremely premature infants as defaults may compromise autonomous decision-making.

Message framing and perinatal decisions.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of information framing on parental decisions about resuscitation of extremely premature infants. Secondary outcomes focused on elucidating the impact of other variables on treatment choices and determining whether those effects would take precedence over any framing effects. METHODS: This confidential survey study was administered to adult volunteers via the Internet. The surveys depicted a hypothetical vignette of a threatened delivery at gestational age of 23 weeks, with prognostic outcome information framed as either survival with lack of disability (positive frame) or chance of dying and likelihood of disability among survivors (negative frame). Participants were randomly assigned to receive either the positively or negatively framed vignette. They were then asked to choose whether they would prefer resuscitation or comfort care. After completing the survey vignette, participants were directed to a questionnaire designed to test the secondary hypothesis and to explore possible factors associated with treatment decisions. RESULTS: A total of 146 subjects received prognostic information framed as survival data and 146 subjects received prognostic information framed as mortality data. Overall, 24% of the sample population chose comfort care and 76% chose resuscitation. A strong trend was detected toward a framing effect on treatment preference; respondents for whom prognosis was framed as survival data were more likely to elect resuscitation. This framing effect was significant in a multivariate analysis controlling for religiousness, parental status, and beliefs regarding the sanctity of life. Of these covariates, only religiousness modified susceptibility to framing; participants who were not highly religious were significantly more likely to be influenced to opt for resuscitation by the positive frame than were participants who were highly religious. CONCLUSIONS: Framing bias may compromise efforts to approach prenatal counseling in a nondirective manner. This is especially true for subsets of participants who are not highly religious.

A review and critique of the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ).

This paper reviews and critiques the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ), "... a self-report inventory representing the first attempt to assess the prevalence of sexual harassment in a manner that met traditional psychometric standards" (Fitzgerald, Gelfand, & Drasgow, 1995, p. 427). Widely used by its developers and others as a measure of sexual harassment, the SEQ is not a finished product, has a number of problems, and has weak psychometric properties. Because of inconsistencies (e.g., in time frame, number of items, wording of items), the SEQ lacks the advantages of standardized measures, such as the ability to assess changes over time. It defines sexual harassment very broadly, having the effect of distorting findings about sexual harassment. Most importantly, it is not clear what or whose definition of sexual harassment the SEQ assesses.

General-knowledge overconfidence: a comparison of brazilian and american university students

People tend be overconfident in their general knowledge.That is, they tend to be more confident in their answers to general-knowlwdge questions than is warranted by the relative frequencey with which their anwers are actualy correc.Suprisingly,cross-national studies have consistenty shown that participants in many Asian conutries exhibit grater genera-knowledge overconfidence than participants in Great Britain and the United States. Because none of this cross-national rese