Impact of long-acting calcium channel blockers on the prognosis of patients with coronary artery disease with and without chronic kidney disease: a comparison of three drugs.

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) can prevent cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). This study looked retrospectively at the prognosis of CAD in hypertensive patients with CAD who had undergone a coronary angiograph, had been given a CCB (benidipine [n = 66], amlodipine [n = 45], or long-acting nifedipine [n = 31]) on hospital discharge and were then followed up for a mean +/- SD of 5.2 +/- 2.9 years. Systolic/diastolic blood pressure for all 142 patients decreased significantly from a mean +/- SD of 137 +/- 20/74 +/- 15 mmHg to 129 +/- 20/71 +/- 12 mmHg. Major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) occurred in 15 patients. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) was a significant risk factor for MACE (hazard ratio 2.35, 95% confidence intervals 1.45, 3.80). Benidipine was superior to nifedipine in preventing MACE in patients both with and without CKD. In conclusion, benidipine and amlodipine reduced the frequency of MACE in hypertensive patients with CAD, particularly in those with complicating CKD.

Transforming growth factor-beta stimulates IL-1beta-induced monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression in human synovial cells via the ERK/AP-1 pathway.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: Transforming growth factor- beta (TGF-beta) has not only a fibrogenic role, but also monocyte/ macrophage chemotactic properties in a synovial joint. However, little is known about the effects of TGF-beta on monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) expression in human synovial cells under inflammatory status. The aim of this study was to determine whether TGF-modulates MCP-1 production under the chronic inflammation, and to elucidate the cell signaling mechanism involved. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Human synovial cells were exposed to IL-1beta, which mimics the environment of chronic inflammation. Production of MCP-1 protein and expression of MCP-1 mRNA were determined by ELISA and real-time PCR. RESULTS: TGF-beta upregulated the expression of MCP-1 mRNA and protein with or without IL-1beta. TGF-beta and IL-1beta synergistically enhanced MCP-1 gene expression, and an AP-1 binding site was involved in the signal transduction. In addition, MEK inhibitor completely suppressed TGF-beta-induced MCP-1 production. CONCLUSIONS: TGF-beta and IL-1beta synergistically enhance MCP-1 gene expression through the activation of the MEK/ERK1/2 pathways, which leads to AP-1 activation. The impairment of MCP-1 regulation by TGF-beta in resident synovial cells might represent an important mechanism of chronic inflammation and tissue fibrosis in a synovial joint. MCP-1 should be considered a valid target for therapeutic intervention.

Induction of cyclooxygenase-1 in cultured synovial cells isolated from rheumatoid arthritis patients.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: The aim of this study was to confirm the involvement of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). MATERIALS AND SUBJECTS: Synovial cells isolated from arthritic patients were cultured primarily and consecutively for 8 passages. TREATMENT: The cultured synovial cells were incubated with 10 ng/ml of interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) for 6 h. METHODS: The effects of either COX-1 or COX-2 selective inhibitor on prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production was estimated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 were determined by Western blotting and immunocytochemistry. RESULTS: IL-1alpha-induced PGE2 production in synovial cells isolated from RA in primary culture was inhibited by mofezolac, a selective inhibitor of COX-1, as well as NS-398, a specific inhibitor of COX-2. The similar inhibitory patterns were obtained in the RA-derived synovial cells within 3 passages. However, COX activity in the RA-derived synovial cells after 5 passages was inhibited by NS-398, but not by mofezolac. In contrast, COX activity in primary and consecutively cultured synovial cells isolated from osteoarthritis (OA) or normal arthritis was inhibited by NS-398, but not by mofezolac. Western blot and immunocytochemical analyses of COX-1 and COX-2 in the synovial cells isolated from RA patients within 3 passages showed an induction in both COX-1 and COX-2 expression by IL-1alpha. The induction of both COX-1 and COX-2 was inhibited by dexamethasone. CONCLUSIONS: These experiments demonstrate COX-1 induction in synovial cells isolated from RA patients, suggesting that COX-1 is involved in the progression of RA.

Effect of hypoxia on monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) gene expression induced by Interleukin-1beta in human synovial fibroblasts.

OBJECTIVE: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial membrane is characterized by leucocyte infiltration and secretion of chemotactic and proinflammatory factors. Since hypoxia is an important pathogenic factor in inflamed synovium, we examined the effects of hypoxia on monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) expression in human rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts (RASF) under IL-1beta-stimulated and -unstimulated conditions. METHODS: Synovial fibroblasts were isolated from RA, osteoarthritis (OA) and healthy knee joints and subjected to hypoxia or/and IL-1beta treatment. MCP-1 expression and protein secretion were measured by real-time PCR and ELISA, respectively. RESULTS: Hypoxia reduces MCP-1 expression and protein secretion in RASF. The same response to hypoxia was found in OA and healthy SF cultures. Treatment with actinomycin D showed that hypoxic down-regulation of MCP-1 expression was due to a decrease in transcription, since the half-life of MCP-1 mRNA was unchanged. A cycloheximide study demonstrated that de novo protein synthesis was not required for the hypoxic effect. The decrease in MCP-1 expression by hypoxia was mimicked by cobalt chloride in unstimulated RASF with no effect on IL-1beta-activated MCP-1, suggesting differences in the signaling mechanisms. The analysis of IkappaB degradation and NF-kappaB translocation revealed that hypoxia did not affect IL-1beta activation of NF-kappaB. CONCLUSION: Hypoxia regulates MCP-1 expression under both basal and cytokine-stimulated conditions, suggesting that reduced oxygen supply is an important factor that mediates chemotaxis of monocytes to the area of inflammation.

Microbial synthesis of three metabolites of a tachykinin receptor antagonist, TAK-637.

The compound TAK-637 ((aR,9R)-7-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-8,9,10,11-tetrahydro-9-methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-7H-[1,4]diazocino[2,1-g][1,7]naphthyridine-6,13-dione), a tachykinin receptor antagonist, has been shown to be converted into three metabolites in rats and guinea pigs. It was difficult to isolate the metabolites from rats and guinea pigs administered TAK-637 and elucidate the structures. A total of 100 actinomycete strains were screened for the ability to convert TAK-637 into its metabolites. Three strains, Streptomyces subrutilus IFO13388, Streptomyces tanashiensis subsp. cephalomyceticus IFO13929 and Streptomyces lavenduligriseus IFO13405, were found to convert TAK-637 into the metabolites consistent with the metabolites formed in rats and guinea pigs as determined by HPLC analyses. The metabolites were synthesized by microbial conversion using the actinomycetes. The structures of the metabolites were elucidated by spectral analyses. It was found that the methyl group at the C(5)-phenyl group of TAK-637 was hydroxylated and the resulting alcohol was converted to carboxylic acid via aldehyde. One of the metabolites (hydroxylated TAK-637) was obtained using a 200-l fermentor in a large-scale cultivation to evaluate its biological activity.

Effect of TPA on aquaporin 4 mRNA expression in cultured rat astrocytes.

Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) is a predominant water channel protein in mammalian brains, localized in the astrocyte plasma membrane. The regulation of AQP4 is believed to be important for the homeostasis of water in the brain, but the AQP4 regulatory mechanisms are not yet known. In this study, we investigated the effect of a protein kinase C (PKC) activator on the expression of AQP4 mRNA in cultured rat astrocytes. Cultured rat astrocytes constitutively expressed AQP4 mRNA. Treatment of the cells with 0.1 microM of phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), an activator of PKC, caused a rapid decrease in AQP4 mRNA. This effect was time- and dose-dependent. The TPA-induced decrease in AQP4 mRNA was inhibited by a relatively specific PKC inhibitor, 1-(5-isoquinoline sulfonyl)-2-methylpiperazine (H7) in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, prolonged treatment of the cells with TPA eliminated the subsequent decrease in AQP4 mRNA by TPA. These results strongly suggest that the TPA-induced decrease in AQP4 mRNA is mediated by PKC activation. To test whether the effect of TPA requires protein synthesis, astrocytes were pretreated with cycloheximide, an inhibitor of protein synthesis. Pretreatment of the cells with cycloheximide did not inhibit the decrease in AQP4 mRNA induced by TPA. To test whether the TPA-induced decrease in AQP4 was due to a decrease in the mRNA stability, we examined the effect of actinomycin D, an inhibitor of transcription, on TPA-treated cells. The stability of AQP4 mRNA was not decreased by the pretreatment of the cells with actinomycin D. The results suggest that AQP4 mRNA is inhibited by TPA via PKC activation without de novo protein synthesis, and that the inhibition of AQP4 mRNA could be at the transcriptional level.

Synthesis of RepK of rolling circle plasmid pKYM is regulated by countertranscript and HU protein.

Replication of rolling circle plasmid pKYM was regulated by RepK, a plasmid-encoded initiator protein, with HU protein and antisense RNA (copRNA) that block the expression of RepK. HU protein bound to the repK promoter in the presence of RepK protein and inhibited the transcription of repK mRNA. The copRNA would hybridize to repK mRNA and induce a stem-loop structure in which the repK Shine-Dalgarno sequence is sequestered by base pairing. Sequence substitution experiments demonstrated that this stem-loop not only inhibits translation but induces premature termination.

HU protein binding to the replication origin of the rolling-circle plasmid pKYM enhances DNA replication.

The RepK protein, which is encoded by the rolling-circle plasmid pKYM, binds to the PR I site in the pKYM DNA replication origin. We have identified HU as a protein that binds to the PR II and PR III sites in the replication-enhancing region which is downstream of PR I. DNA footprinting assays show that HU binds to these two sites only when RepK is bound to PR I, and that HU also enhances the binding of RepK to PR I. In vivo, pKYM was unable to transform an HU null strain. Two mutant RepK proteins, RepKW179Y, which contains a Trp-to-Tyr exchange at position 179, and RepKD277L, which contains an Asp-to-Leu mutation at residue 277, initiate DNA replication in vivo in the absence of HU. In vitro, these mutant RepK proteins form more stable complexes with the pKYM origin region than does the wild-type RepK protein. These results indicate that HU plays a role in the formation of a stable RepK-origin complex, which is required for the initiation of pKYM DNA replication.

Involvement of prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase-2 in osteoclast-like cell formation induced by interleukin-1 beta.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) stimulates osteoclast-like cell formation via prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production. However, the regulatory mechanism for the production of PGE2 in bone cells is still unclear. Recently, it has been shown that two prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase (PGHS) isozymes exist, termed PGSH-1 and PGHS-2. We report here that IL-1 beta induces PGE2 production in bone marrow culture induced by a PGHS-2-dependent mechanism. IL-1 beta stimulated the formation of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinucleated cells (MNC) and the production of PGE2 in mouse bone marrow cultures. The dose response curves for the indomethacin inhibition of TRAP-positive MNC formation and PGE2 production were nearly identical. Cycloheximide (CHX) suppressed IL-1 beta-induced PGE2 production, suggesting that the production of PGE2 induced by IL-1 beta required de novo protein synthesis. Northern blot analysis determined that IL-1 beta induced PGHS-2 expression by 30 minutes and mRNA levels were maximal by 1-2 h. Cycloheximide potentiated the accumulation of PGHS-2 mRNA linearly up to 8 h. Dexamethasone, an inhibitor of the induction of PGHS-2, inhibited IL-1 beta-induced PGHS-2 mRNA expression and also suppressed IL-1 beta-stimulated formation of TRAP-positive MNC. Furthermore NS-398, as a selective PGHS-2 inhibitor, completely inhibited IL-1 beta-induced TRAP-positive MNC formation. Moreover, IL-1 beta-induced PGHS-2 mRNA expression and formation of TRAP-positive MNC were inhibited by calphostin C, a selective inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC). These results indicate that IL-1 beta-induced formation of osteoclast-like cells requires PKC activation, induction of PGHS-2, and subsequent prostaglandin synthesis by this enzyme.

Effects of endogenously produced arachidonic acid metabolites on rat mesangial cell proliferation.

The role of endogenously produced arachidonic acid metabolites on glomerulonephritis was investigated using cultured rat mesangial cells. The cultured mesangial cells could produce prostaglandin (PG) E2 and F2 alpha and 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE). The treatment of the mesangial cells with indomethacin enhanced the cell growth stimulated by 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). This stimulatory effect was significantly attenuated by concomitant treatment with PGE2, but not with PGF2 alpha. To test whether the mechanism by which PGE2 inhibited the mesangial cell growth is related to in the increment of cyclic AMP (cAMP), we examined the effect of dibutyryl cAMP on mesangial cell growth. As expected, treatment with dibutyryl cAMP decreased the cell proliferation. Moreover treatment with KT-5720, a protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor, stimulated the cell growth as well as indomethacin. These data strongly suggest that the inhibition of mesangial cell growth by PGE2 involves an activation of PKA. In contrast, treatment with baicalein, a specific inhibitor of 12-lipoxygenase, inhibited the mesangial cell growth. The up and down regulations by arachidonic acid metabolites were also observed in the growth induced by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). These results suggest that endogenously produced arachidonic acid metabolites are involved in the regulation of mesangial cell growth.

Production, purification and characterization of biologically active recombinant human nerve growth factor.

The human NGF gene was isolated and inserted downstream from murine leukemia virus LTR in a plasmid having dihydrofolate reductase cDNA. The expression plasmid was introduced into CHO cells. Selection of the transformants for the resistance to methotrexate gave a CHO cell line which produced human NGF at a level of 4 mg/L in the culture medium. The recombinant human NGF was purified to near homogeneity from the culture supernatant. The NH2-terminal amino acid sequence, the COOH-terminal amino acid (Ala), and the amino acid composition of the human NGF were identical to those deduced from the nucleotide sequence of the human NGF gene. The recombinant human NGF was composed of 120 amino acid residues. Three disulfide linkages were determined to be Cys15-Cys80, Cys-58-Cys108, and Cys68-Cys110; the locations were identical to those in the mouse 2.5S NGF molecule. The specific biological activity of the recombinant human NGF was comparable with that of authentic mouse 2.5S NGF as determined by stimulation of neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells.

Cloning and expression of a cDNA encoding a novel human neurotrophic factor.

A cDNA encoding a novel human neurotrophic factor (designated nerve growth factor-2; NGF-2) was cloned from a human glioma cDNA library using a synthetic DNA corresponding to human nerve growth factor (NGF). The cloned cDNA encodes a polypeptide composed of 257 amino acid residues including a prepro-sequence of 138 residues and a mature region of 119 residues. The amino acid sequence of human NGF-2 exhibits 58% similarity with that of human NGF. Conditioned medium of COS-7 cells transfected with an expression plasmid for human NGF-2 cDNA supported the survival of sensory neurons isolated from dorsal root ganglia of embryonic chicks. A 1.5 kb of NGF-2 mRNA can be detected from an early development stage in rat brain, by Northern blotting analysis.

Use of Bacillus brevis for efficient synthesis and secretion of human epidermal growth factor.

Using previously isolated Bacillus brevis strains that secrete large amounts of proteins but little protease into the medium, we have developed a host-vector system for very efficient synthesis and secretion of heterologous proteins. The multiple promoters and the signal-peptide-coding region of the MWP gene, a structural gene for one of the major cell wall proteins of B. brevis strain 47, were used to construct expression-secretion vectors. With this system, a synthetic gene for human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) was expressed efficiently and a large amount (0.24 g per liter of culture) of mature hEGF was secreted into the medium. hEGF purified from the culture supernatant had the same NH2-terminal amino acid sequence, COOH-terminal amino acid, and amino acid composition as natural hEGF, and it was fully active in biological assays. These results, in combination with previous results, showed that mammalian proteins can be produced in active form 10-100 times more efficiently in B. brevis than has been reported in other systems.

Increase in gene expression by respiratory-deficient mutation.

Respiratory-deficient mutants (rho- cells) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae produced about 10 times as much human (h-) lysozyme as did wild-type strains (rho+ cells) when the GAL10 promoter was used in an expression plasmid with the h-lysozyme gene. Introduction of intact mitochondria into the rho- cells resulted in a significant decrease in the production of h-lysozyme, indicating that the rho- mutation increased the expression of the h-lysozyme gene. The copy number of the expression plasmid was not responsible for the increased expression. The level of h-lysozyme mRNA in the rho- cells was also much higher than that in the rho+ cells especially at the stationary phase. The increased expression of the h-lysozyme gene was also observed when a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene promoter and the PHO5 promoter were used in the expression plasmid. The rho- mutation also increased the expression of the PHO5 gene under the control of the HIS5 promoter in a plasmid and the ACT1 gene in the yeast chromosome, but did not increase the expression of the ribosomal RNA gene. In contrast to the rho- mutants, pet mutants did not show higher gene expression compared with wild-type strains.

Human lysozyme: sequencing of a cDNA, and expression and secretion by Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

A cDNA encoding human lysozyme was isolated from a human placenta cDNA library. The cDNA was 1.5 kb in size and coded for a signal peptide consisting of 18 amino acids and mature lysozyme. The amino acid sequence of the mature lysozyme, deduced from the nucleotide sequence, was identical with the published sequence. In the 3'-noncoding region of the cDNA, an Alu sequence was found in the reverse orientation. In a protein coding region, the human lysozyme cDNA shows 60.1% and 51.3% similarity with chicken lysozyme and human alpha-lactalbumin cDNAs, respectively. When the cDNA was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, an active and correctly processed human lysozyme was secreted efficiently into the culture medium.

Differences between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Bacillus subtilis in secretion of human lysozyme.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae secreted human lysozyme in the medium as an active form when the signal peptides of chicken lysozyme and a chicken lysozyme-Aspergillus awamori glucoamylase hybrid were used, whereas it did not synthesize any human lysozyme protein by using the signal peptide of A. awamori glucoamylase. The secreted lysozyme was easily purified and crystallized. On the other hand, Bacillus subtilis secreted an inactive human lysozyme, which seemed to have incorrect disulfide bonds, with the signal peptide of amylase and its mutants. The free energy changes for the membrane translocation of the signal peptides are related to the secretion of human lysozyme in S. cerevisiae, but not in B. subtilis. These results indicate that differences exist between S. cerevisiae and B. subtilis in the secretion of human lysozyme.

Expression of human lysozyme in an insoluble form in yeast.

A high level of expression in yeast of a chemically synthesized human lysozyme (hL) gene was achieved by introducing an A-rich DNA fragment just upstream from the ATG start codon. The synthesized recombinant human lysozyme (r-hL) was insoluble and biologically inactive. It was solubilized with 7 M urea (pH 9) from yeast cells and its lytic activity was efficiently regenerated by oxidative renaturation. This renaturation experiment and Western blotting analysis under reducing and non-reducing conditions indicate that the insoluble form might be caused by the formation of incorrect intra- or intermolecular disulfide bonds. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified r-hL was identical with that of authentic hL.

Cloning and sequencing of Serratia protease gene.

The gene encoding an extracellular metalloproteinase from Serratia sp. E-15 has been cloned, and its complete nucleotide sequence determined. The amino acid sequence deduced from the nucleotide sequence reveals that the mature protein of the Serratia protease consists of 470 amino acids with a molecular weight of 50,632. The G+C content of the coding region for the mature protein is 58%; this high G+C content is due to a marked preference for G+C bases at the third position of the codons. The gene codes for a short pro-peptide preceding the mature protein. The Serratia protease gene was expressed in Escherichia coli and Serratia marcescens; the former produced the Serratia protease in the cells and the latter in the culture medium. Three zinc ligands and an active site of the Serratia protease were predicted by comparing the structure of the enzyme with those of thermolysin and Bacillus subtilis neutral protease.

A promoter for Bacillus subtilis expression vector.

A 117-bp EcoRI-PstI fragment with strong promoter activity (P1 promoter) was cloned from Bacillus subtilis chromosomal DNA and sequenced. The P1 promoter was shown to contain a putative -35 region (TTTACT) and -10 region (TAGATT), and promotes expression of cloned human interleukin-2 (IL-2) and human interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) genes in B. subtilis.