Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2022.

OBJECTIVE: To provide comprehensive epidemiological information about the distribution and occurrence of rabies during 2022 in the US, Canada, and Mexico. METHODS: The US National Rabies Surveillance System collected 2022 animal rabies data from US state and territorial public health departments and USDA Wildlife Services. Temporal and geographic analyses were conducted to evaluate trends in animal rabies cases. RESULTS: During 2022, 54 US jurisdictions reported 3,579 animal rabies cases, reflecting a 2.3% decline from 3,663 cases reported in 2021. Six states collectively reported > 50% of animal rabies cases: Texas (395 [11.0%]), Virginia (337 [9.4%]), Pennsylvania (329 [9.2%]), New York (267 [7.5%]), North Carolina (264 [7.4%]), and California (241 [6.7%]). Out of the total reported rabies animal cases, 3,234 (90.4%) were attributed to wildlife, with bats (1,218 [34.0%]), raccoons (1,014 [28.3%]), skunks (660 [18.4%]), and foxes (269 [7.5%]) representing the primary hosts confirmed with rabies. Rabid cats (222 [6.2%]), cattle (42 [1.2%]), and dogs (50 [1.4%]) constituted > 90% of reported domestic animal rabies cases. CONCLUSIONS: In 2022, there was an increase in the number of animal samples submitted for rabies testing in the US and Canada. A notable geographic expansion of gray fox rabies virus variant was detected in the US. Three human rabies deaths due to vampire bat rabies infection occurred in Mexico; none were reported from the US and Canada. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Laboratory diagnosis of rabies in animals is critical to ensure judicious use of human rabies postexposure prophylaxis.

U.S. Preparedness and Response to Increasing Clade I Mpox Cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo - United States, 2024.

Clade I monkeypox virus (MPXV), which can cause severe illness in more people than clade II MPXVs, is endemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but the country has experienced an increase in suspected cases during 2023-2024. In light of the 2022 global outbreak of clade II mpox, the increase in suspected clade I cases in DRC raises concerns that the virus could spread to other countries and underscores the importance of coordinated, urgent global action to support DRC's efforts to contain the virus. To date, no cases of clade I mpox have been detected outside of countries in Central Africa where the virus is endemic. CDC and other partners are working to support DRC's response. In addition, CDC is enhancing U.S. preparedness by raising awareness, strengthening surveillance, expanding diagnostic testing capacity for clade I MPXV, ensuring appropriate specimen handling and waste management, emphasizing the importance of appropriate medical treatment, and communicating guidance on the recommended contact tracing, containment, behavior modification, and vaccination strategies.

Nowcasting and forecasting the 2022 U.S. mpox outbreak: Support for public health decision making and lessons learned.

In June of 2022, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Mpox Response wanted timely answers to important epidemiological questions which can now be answered more effectively through infectious disease modeling. Infectious disease models have shown to be valuable tools for decision making during outbreaks; however, model complexity often makes communicating the results and limitations of models to decision makers difficult. We performed nowcasting and forecasting for the 2022 mpox outbreak in the United States using the R package EpiNow2. We generated nowcasts/forecasts at the national level, by Census region, and for jurisdictions reporting the greatest number of mpox cases. Modeling results were shared for situational awareness within the CDC Mpox Response and publicly on the CDC website. We retrospectively evaluated forecast predictions at four key phases (early, exponential growth, peak, and decline) during the outbreak using three metrics, the weighted interval score, mean absolute error, and prediction interval coverage. We compared the performance of EpiNow2 with a naïve Bayesian generalized linear model (GLM). The EpiNow2 model had less probabilistic error than the GLM during every outbreak phase except for the early phase. We share our experiences with an existing tool for nowcasting/forecasting and highlight areas of improvement for the development of future tools. We also reflect on lessons learned regarding data quality issues and adapting modeling results for different audiences.

Updating Reproduction Number Estimates for Mpox in the Democratic Republic of Congo Using Surveillance Data.

Incidence of human monkeypox (mpox) has been increasing in West and Central Africa, including in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where monkeypox virus (MPXV) is endemic. Most estimates of the pathogen's transmissibility in the DRC are based on data from the 1980s. Amid the global 2022 mpox outbreak, new estimates are needed to characterize the virus' epidemic potential and inform outbreak control strategies. We used the R package vimes to identify clusters of laboratory-confirmed mpox cases in Tshuapa Province, DRC. Cases with both temporal and spatial data were assigned to clusters based on the disease's serial interval and spatial kernel. We used the size of the clusters to infer the effective reproduction number, Rt, and the rate of zoonotic spillover of MPXV into the human population. Out of 1,463 confirmed mpox cases reported in Tshuapa Province between 2013 and 2017, 878 had both date of symptom onset and a location with geographic coordinates. Results include an estimated Rt of 0.82 (95% CI: 0.79-0.85) and a rate of 132 (95% CI: 122-143) spillovers per year assuming a reporting rate of 25%. This estimate of Rt is larger than most previous estimates. One potential explanation for this result is that Rt could have increased in the DRC over time owing to declining population-level immunity conferred by smallpox vaccination, which was discontinued around 1982. Rt could be overestimated if our assumption of one spillover event per cluster does not hold. Our results are consistent with increased transmissibility of MPXV in Tshuapa Province.

An evaluation of the ecological niche of Orf virus (Poxviridae): Challenges of distinguishing broad niches from no niches.

Contagious ecthyma is a skin disease, caused by Orf virus, creating great economic threats to livestock farming worldwide. Zoonotic potential of this disease has gained recent attention owing to the re-emergence of disease in several parts of the world. Increased public health concern emphasizes the need for a predictive understanding of the geographic distributional potential of Orf virus. Here, we mapped the current distribution using occurrence records, and estimated the ecological niche in both geographical and environmental spaces. Twenty modeling experiments, resulting from two- and three-partition models, were performed to choose the candidate models that best represent the geographic distributional potential of Orf virus. For all of our models, it was possible to reject the null hypothesis of predictive performance no better than random expectations. However, statistical significance must be accompanied by sufficiently good predictive performance if a model is to be useful. In our case, omission of known distribution of the virus was noticed in all Maxent models, indicating inferior quality of our models. This conclusion was further confirmed by the independent final evaluation, using occurrence records sourced from the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International. Minimum volume ellipsoid (MVE) models indicated the broad range of environmental conditions under which Orf virus infections are found. The excluded climatic conditions from MVEs could not be considered as unsuitable owing to the broad distribution of Orf virus. These results suggest two possibilities: that the niche models fail to identify niche limits that constrain the virus, or that the virus has no detectable niche, as it can be found throughout the geographic distributions of its hosts. This potential limitation of component-based pathogen-only ENMs is discussed in detail.

Modelling the impact of vaccination and sexual behaviour adaptations on mpox cases in the USA during the 2022 outbreak.

BACKGROUND: The 2022 mpox outbreak has infected over 30 000 people in the USA, with cases declining since mid-August. Infections were commonly associated with sexual contact between men. Interventions to mitigate the outbreak included vaccination and a reduction in sexual partnerships. Understanding the contributions of these interventions to decreasing cases can inform future public health efforts. METHODS: We fit a dynamic network transmission model to mpox cases reported by Washington DC through 10 January 2023. This model incorporated both vaccine administration data and reported reductions in sexual partner acquisition by gay, bisexual or other men who have sex with men (MSM). The model output consisted of daily cases over time with or without vaccination and/or behavioural adaptation. RESULTS: We found that initial declines in cases were likely caused by behavioural adaptations. One year into the outbreak, vaccination and behavioural adaptation together prevented an estimated 84% (IQR 67% to 91%) of cases. Vaccination alone averted 79% (IQR 64% to 88%) of cases and behavioural adaptation alone averted 25% (IQR 10% to 42%) of cases. We further found that in the absence of vaccination, behavioural adaptation would have reduced the number of cases, but would have prolonged the outbreak. CONCLUSIONS: We found that initial declines in cases were likely caused by behavioural adaptation, but vaccination averted more cases overall and was key to hastening outbreak conclusion. Overall, this indicates that outreach to encourage individuals to protect themselves from infection was vital in the early stages of the mpox outbreak, but that combination with a robust vaccination programme hastened outbreak conclusion.

Risk of Rabies and Implications for Postexposure Prophylaxis Administration in the US.

Importance: In the US, rabies postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) is often administered without a comprehensive and regionally appropriate rabies risk assessment. For low-risk exposures, this can result in patients incurring out-of-pocket expenses or experiencing adverse effects of PEP unnecessarily. Objective: To use a model to estimate (1) the probability that an animal would test positive for rabies virus (RABV) given that a person was exposed, and (2) the probability that a person would die from rabies given that they were exposed to a suspect rabid animal and did not receive PEP, and to propose a risk threshold for recommending PEP according to model estimates and a survey. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this decision analytical modeling study, positivity rates were calculated using more than 900 000 animal samples tested for RABV between 2011 and 2020. Other parameters were estimated from a subset of the surveillance data and the literature. Probabilities were estimated using Bayes' rule. A survey was administered among a convenience sample of state public health officials in all US states (excluding Hawaii) plus Washington, DC and Puerto Rico to determine a risk threshold for PEP recommendation. Respondents were asked whether they would recommend PEP given 24 standardized exposure scenarios while accounting for local rabies epidemiology. Main Outcomes and Measures: A quantitative and regionally appropriate approach for helping health care practitioners and public health professionals determine whether to recommend and/or administer rabies PEP. Results: A total of 1728 unique observations were obtained from the model for the probability that an animal would test positive for RABV given that a person was exposed, and 41 472 for ) the probability that a person would die from rabies given that they were exposed to a suspect rabid animal and did not receive PEP. The median probability that an animal would test positive for RABV given that a person was exposed ranged from 3 × 10-7 to 0.97, while the probability that a person would die from rabies given that they were exposed to a suspect rabid animal and did not receive PEP ranged from 1 × 10-10 to 0.55. Fifty public health officials out of a target sample size of 102 responded to the survey. Using logistic regression, a risk threshold was estimated for PEP recommendation of 0.0004; PEP may not be recommended for exposures with probabilities below this threshold. Conclusions and Relevance: In this modeling study of rabies in the US, the risk of death|exposure was quantified and a risk threshold was estimated. These results could be used to inform the decision-making process as to the appropriateness of recommending rabies PEP.

Orthopoxvirus Circulation in an Endemic Area in Brazil: Investigation of Infections in Small Mammals during an Absence of Outbreaks.

Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the causative agent of an emerging viral zoonosis called bovine vaccinia (BV). Several studies have documented characteristics of VACV infections in Brazil; however, the manner in which this virus is maintained in wildlife remains unknown. This work investigated the presence of viral DNA and anti-orthopoxvirus (OPXV) antibodies in samples collected from small mammals in a VACV-endemic area in Minas Gerais, Brazil, in the absence of current outbreaks. Samples did not show amplification of OPXV DNA in molecular tests. However, 5/142 serum samples demonstrated the presence of anti-OPXV neutralizing antibodies in serological tests. These data reinforce the involvement of small mammals in the natural cycle of VACV, highlighting the need for further ecological studies to better understand how this virus is maintained in nature and to develop measures to prevent BV outbreaks.

Serial Interval and Incubation Period Estimates of Monkeypox Virus Infection in 12 Jurisdictions, United States, May-August 2022.

Using data from 12 US health departments, we estimated mean serial interval for monkeypox virus infection to be 8.5 (95% credible interval 7.3-9.9) days for symptom onset, based on 57 case pairs. Mean estimated incubation period was 5.6 (95% credible interval 4.3-7.8) days for symptom onset, based on 35 case pairs.

Revealing the complexity of vampire bat rabies "spillover transmission".

BACKGROUND: The term virus 'spillover' embodies a highly complex phenomenon and is often used to refer to viral transmission from a primary reservoir host to a new, naïve yet susceptible and permissive host species. Spillover transmission can result in a virus becoming pathogenic, causing disease and death to the new host if successful infection and transmission takes place. MAIN TEXT: The scientific literature across diverse disciplines has used the terms virus spillover, spillover transmission, cross-species transmission, and host shift almost indistinctly to imply the complex process of establishment of a virus from an original host (source/donor) to a naïve host (recipient), which have close or distant taxonomic or evolutionary ties. Spillover transmission may result in unsuccessful onward transmission, if the virus dies off before propagation. Alternatively, successful viral establishment in the new host can occur if subsequent secondary transmission among individuals of the same novel species and among other sympatric susceptible species occurred. As such, virus spillover transmission is a common yet highly complex phenomenon that encompasses multiple subtle stages that can be deconstructed to be studied separately to better understand the drivers of disease emergence. Rabies virus (RABV) is a well-documented viral pathogen which still inflicts heavy impact on humans, companion animals, wildlife, and livestock throughout Latin America due substantial spatial temporal and ecological-natural and expansional-overlap with several virus reservoir hosts. Thereby, the rabies disease system represents a robust avenue through which the drivers and uncertainties surrounding spillover transmission can be unravel at its different subtle stages to better understand how they may be affected by coarse, medium, and fine scale variables. CONCLUSIONS: The continued study of viral spillover transmission necessitates the elucidation of its complexities to better assess the cross-scale impacts of ecological forces linked to the propensity of spillover success. Improving capacities to reconstruct and predict spillover transmission would prevent public health impacts on those most at risk populations across the globe.

Orthopoxvirus Infections in Rodents, Nigeria, 2018-2019.

To investigate animal reservoirs of monkeypox virus in Nigeria, we sampled 240 rodents during 2018-2019. Molecular (real-time PCR) and serologic (IgM) evidence indicated orthopoxvirus infections, but presence of monkeypox virus was not confirmed. These results can be used to develop public health interventions to reduce human infection with orthopoxviruses.

Epidemiology of Human Mpox - Worldwide, 2018-2021.

Monkeypox (mpox) is a zoonotic disease caused by Monkeypox virus (MPXV), an Orthopoxvirus; the wild mammalian reservoir species is not known. There are two genetic clades of MPXV: clade I and clade II (historically found in central and west Africa, respectively), with only Cameroon reporting both clades (1). Human cases have historically been reported from 1) mostly rural, forested areas in some central and west African countries; 2) countries reporting cases related to population migration or travel of infected persons; and 3) exposure to imported infected mammals (2). The annual number of cases in Africa has risen since 2014 and cumulatively surpassed reports from the previous 40 years for most countries. This reemergence of mpox might be due to a combination of environmental and ecological changes, animal or human movement, the cessation of routine smallpox vaccination since its eradication in 1980, improvements in disease detection and diagnosis, and genetic changes in the virus (2). This report describes the epidemiology of mpox since 1970 and during 2018-2021, using data from national surveillance programs, World Health Organization (WHO) bulletins, and case reports, and addresses current diagnostic and treatment challenges in countries with endemic disease. During 2018-2021, human cases were recognized and confirmed in six African countries, with most detected in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Nigeria. The reemergence and increase in cases resulted in its being listed in 2019 as a priority disease for immediate and routine reporting through the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response strategy in the WHO African region.* In eight instances, patients with mpox were identified in four countries outside of Africa after travel from Nigeria. Since 2018, introductory and intermediate training courses on prevention and control of mpox for public health and health care providers have been available online at OpenWHO.†,§ The global outbreak that began in May 2022¶ has further highlighted the need for improvements in laboratory-based surveillance and access to treatments and vaccines to prevent and contain the infection, including in areas of Africa with endemic mpox.

Reduced Risk for Mpox After Receipt of 1 or 2 Doses of JYNNEOS Vaccine Compared with Risk Among Unvaccinated Persons - 43 U.S. Jurisdictions, July 31-October 1, 2022.

As of October 28, 2022, a total of 28,244* monkeypox (mpox) cases have been reported in the United States during an outbreak that has disproportionately affected gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) (1). JYNNEOS vaccine (Modified Vaccinia Ankara vaccine, Bavarian Nordic), administered subcutaneously as a 2-dose (0.5 mL per dose) series (with doses administered 4 weeks apart), was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2019 to prevent smallpox and mpox disease (2); an FDA Emergency Use Authorization issued on August 9, 2022, authorized intradermal administration of 0.1 mL per dose, increasing the number of persons who could be vaccinated with the available vaccine supply† (3). A previous comparison of mpox incidence during July 31-September 3, 2022, among unvaccinated, but vaccine-eligible men aged 18-49 years and those who had received ≥1 JYNNEOS vaccine dose in 32 U.S. jurisdictions, found that incidence among unvaccinated persons was 14 times that among vaccinated persons (95% CI = 5.0-41.0) (4). During September 4-October 1, 2022, a total of 205,504 persons received JYNNEOS vaccine dose 2 in the United States.§ To further examine mpox incidence among persons who were unvaccinated and those who had received either 1 or 2 JYNNEOS doses, investigators analyzed data on 9,544 reported mpox cases among men¶ aged 18-49 years during July 31-October 1, 2022, from 43 U.S. jurisdictions,** by vaccination status. During this study period, mpox incidence (cases per 100,000 population at risk) among unvaccinated persons was 7.4 (95% CI = 6.0-9.1) times that among persons who received only 1 dose of JYNNEOS vaccine ≥14 days earlier and 9.6 (95% CI = 6.9-13.2) times that among persons who received dose 2 ≥14 days earlier. The observed distribution of subcutaneous and intradermal routes of administration of dose 1 among vaccinated persons with mpox was not different from the expected distribution. This report provides additional data suggesting JYNNEOS vaccine provides protection against mpox, irrespective of whether the vaccine is administered intradermally or subcutaneously. The degree and durability of such protection remains unclear. Persons eligible for mpox vaccination should receive the complete 2-dose series to optimize strength of protection†† (5).

Incidence of Monkeypox Among Unvaccinated Persons Compared with Persons Receiving ≥1 JYNNEOS Vaccine Dose - 32 U.S. Jurisdictions, July 31-September 3, 2022.

Human monkeypox is caused by Monkeypox virus (MPXV), an Orthopoxvirus, previously rare in the United States (1). The first U.S. case of monkeypox during the current outbreak was identified on May 17, 2022 (2). As of September 28, 2022, a total of 25,341 monkeypox cases have been reported in the United States.* The outbreak has disproportionately affected gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) (3). JYNNEOS vaccine (Modified Vaccinia Ankara vaccine, Bavarian Nordic), administered subcutaneously as a 2-dose (0.5 mL per dose) series with doses administered 4 weeks apart, was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2019 to prevent smallpox and monkeypox infection (4). U.S. distribution of JYNNEOS vaccine as postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) for persons with known exposures to MPXV began in May 2022. A U.S. national vaccination strategy† for expanded PEP, announced on June 28, 2022, recommended subcutaneous vaccination of persons with known or presumed exposure to MPXV, broadening vaccination eligibility. FDA emergency use authorization (EUA) of intradermal administration of 0.1 mL of JYNNEOS on August 9, 2022, increased vaccine supply (5). As of September 28, 2022, most vaccine has been administered as PEP or expanded PEP. Because of the limited amount of time that has elapsed since administration of initial vaccine doses, as of September 28, 2022, relatively few persons in the current outbreak have completed the recommended 2-dose series.§ To examine the incidence of monkeypox among persons who were unvaccinated and those who had received ≥1 JYNNEOS vaccine dose, 5,402 reported monkeypox cases occurring among males¶ aged 18-49 years during July 31-September 3, 2022, were analyzed by vaccination status across 32 U.S. jurisdictions.** Average monkeypox incidence (cases per 100,000) among unvaccinated persons was 14.3 (95% CI = 5.0-41.0) times that among persons who received 1 dose of JYNNEOS vaccine ≥14 days earlier. Monitoring monkeypox incidence by vaccination status in timely surveillance data might provide early indications of vaccine-related protection that can be confirmed through other well-controlled vaccine effectiveness studies. This early finding suggests that a single dose of JYNNEOS vaccine provides some protection against monkeypox infection. The degree and durability of such protection is unknown, and it is recommended that people who are eligible for monkeypox vaccination receive the complete 2-dose series.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Transmission in a Georgia School District-United States, December 2020-January 2021.

BACKGROUND: To inform prevention strategies, we assessed the extent of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission and settings in which transmission occurred in a Georgia public school district. METHODS: During 1 December 2020-22 January 2021, SARS-CoV-2-infected index cases and their close contacts in schools were identified by school and public health officials. For in-school contacts, we assessed symptoms and offered SARS-CoV-2 reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) testing; performed epidemiologic investigations and whole-genome sequencing to identify in-school transmission; and calculated secondary attack rate (SAR) by school setting (eg, sports, elementary school classroom), index case role (ie, staff, student), and index case symptomatic status. RESULTS: We identified 86 index cases and 1119 contacts, 688 (61.5%) of whom received testing. Fifty-nine of 679 (8.7%) contacts tested positive; 15 of 86 (17.4%) index cases resulted in ≥2 positive contacts. Among 55 persons testing positive with available symptom data, 31 (56.4%) were asymptomatic. Highest SARs were in indoor, high-contact sports settings (23.8% [95% confidence interval {CI}, 12.7%-33.3%]), staff meetings/lunches (18.2% [95% CI, 4.5%-31.8%]), and elementary school classrooms (9.5% [95% CI, 6.5%-12.5%]). The SAR was higher for staff (13.1% [95% CI, 9.0%-17.2%]) vs student index cases (5.8% [95% CI, 3.6%-8.0%]) and for symptomatic (10.9% [95% CI, 8.1%-13.9%]) vs asymptomatic index cases (3.0% [95% CI, 1.0%-5.5%]). CONCLUSIONS: Indoor sports may pose a risk to the safe operation of in-person learning. Preventing infection in staff members, through measures that include coronavirus disease 2019 vaccination, is critical to reducing in-school transmission. Because many positive contacts were asymptomatic, contact tracing should be paired with testing, regardless of symptoms.

Exportation of Monkeypox Virus From the African Continent.

BACKGROUND: The largest West African monkeypox outbreak began September 2017, in Nigeria. Four individuals traveling from Nigeria to the United Kingdom (n = 2), Israel (n = 1), and Singapore (n = 1) became the first human monkeypox cases exported from Africa, and a related nosocomial transmission event in the United Kingdom became the first confirmed human-to-human monkeypox transmission event outside of Africa. METHODS: Epidemiological and molecular data for exported and Nigerian cases were analyzed jointly to better understand the exportations in the temporal and geographic context of the outbreak. RESULTS: Isolates from all travelers and a Bayelsa case shared a most recent common ancestor and traveled to Bayelsa, Delta, or Rivers states. Genetic variation for this cluster was lower than would be expected from a random sampling of genomes from this outbreak, but data did not support direct links between travelers. CONCLUSIONS: Monophyly of exportation cases and the Bayelsa sample, along with the intermediate levels of genetic variation, suggest a small pool of related isolates is the likely source for the exported infections. This may be the result of the level of genetic variation present in monkeypox isolates circulating within the contiguous region of Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers states, or another more restricted, yet unidentified source pool.

Activity patterns and burrowing ecology of the giant pouched rat (Cricetomys emini) in Tshuapa Province, D. R. Congo.

Rodents of the genus Cricetomys have been reported to be nocturnal with a bimodal activity pattern and to frequently change burrows. However, no studies to date have examined these ecological aspects with the use of radio-telemetry. Five C. emini were captured and radio-collared to study their activity patterns and burrowing ecology from 9 March to 15 April 2016. Nocturnal activity ranged between the hours of 18:00 and 05:00 with a probable reduction of activities between 20:00-23:00 and around 04:00 with diurnal activity between 06:00 and 17:00 h with a reduction of activity between 11:00 and 14:00. While the present study does confirm nocturnal activity and a bimodal pattern, this study also suggests greater diurnal activity as compared to previous studies. Additionally, data presented here also suggest that C. emini may not change burrows as frequently as previously reported.

Use of partial N-gene sequences as a tool to monitor progress on rabies control and elimination efforts in Ethiopia.

Ethiopia is one of the African countries most affected by rabies. A coarse catalog of rabies viruses (RABV) was created as a benchmark to assess the impact of control and elimination activities. We evaluated a 726 bp amplicon at the end of the N-gene to infer viral lineages in circulation using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods for phylogenetic reconstruction. We sequenced 228 brain samples from wild and domestic animals collected in five Ethiopian regions during 2010-2017. Results identified co-circulating RABV lineages that are causing recurrent spillover infections into wildlife and domestic animals. We found no evidence of importation of RABVs from other African countries or vaccine-induced cases in the area studied. A divergent RABV lineage might be involved in an independent rabies cycle in jackals. This investigation provides a feasible approach to assess rabies control and elimination efforts in resource-limited countries.

Educational Approach to Prevent the Burden of Vaccinia Virus Infections in a Bovine Vaccinia Endemic Area in Brazil.

Bovine vaccinia (BV), caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV), is a zoonotic disease characterized by exanthematous lesions on the teats of dairy cows and the hands of milkers, and is an important public health issue in Brazil and South America. BV also results in economic losses to the dairy industry, being a burden to the regions involved in milk production. In the past 20 years, much effort has been made to increase the knowledge regarding BV epidemiology, etiologic agents, and interactions with the hosts and the environment. In the present study, we evaluated milking practices that could be associated with VACV infections in an endemic area in Brazil and proposed an educational tool to help prevent VACV infections. In our survey, 124 individuals (51.7%) from a total of 240 had previously heard of BV, 94 of which knew about it through BV outbreaks. Although most individuals involved in dairy activities (n = 85/91) reported having good hygiene practices, only 29.7% used adequate disinfecting products to clean their hands and 39.5% disinfected cows' teats before and after milking. Furthermore, 46.7% of individuals reported having contact with other farm and domestic animals besides dairy cattle. We also evaluated the presence of IgG and IgM antibodies in the surveyed population. Overall, 6.1% of likely unvaccinated individuals were positive for anti-Orthopoxvirus IgG antibodies, and 1.7% of all individuals were positive for IgM antibodies. Based on our findings, we proposed educational materials which target individuals with permanent residence in rural areas (mainly farmers and milkers), providing an overview and basic information about preventive measures against VACV infections that could enhance BV control and prevention efforts, especially for vulnerable populations located in endemic areas.