Metal accumulation in salt marsh soils along the East Coast of the United States.

Coastal salt marshes are depositional environments that can accumulate pollutants introduced to the environment from human activities. Metals are a contaminant of concern in coastal environments due to their longevity and toxicity. We assessed metal concentrations and accumulation rates in nine salt marsh sites along the U.S. East Coast from Maine to Georgia. Following a metal mobility assay in organic-rich and mineral dominated salt marsh soils under aerobic/anaerobic and freshwater/saltwater conditions, we focused on profiles of chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, and uranium in two soil cores from each of the nine marshes that had previously been dated using lead-210 radioisotope techniques. We examined how land cover and the spatial distribution of land cover, marsh vertical accretion, and other watershed characteristics correlated with metal concentrations and depth/time-integrated accumulation of metals. We found statistically significant differences in metal concentrations and/or inventories between sites, with accumulation of metals positively correlated with both developed land cover in the watershed and rates of vertical accretion in the tidal marsh. The accumulation of chromium, cadmium, and lead were significantly correlated with developed land cover while the accumulation of chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, and lead were correlated with factors that determine sediment delivery from the landscape (e.g., riverine suspended sediment, soil erodibility in the watershed, and agricultural land cover skewed towards the coast) and measured wetland accretion rates. We observed declines in the concentration of many metals since 1925 at sites along the U.S. East Coast, indicating pollution mitigation strategies have succeeded in reducing metal pollution and delivery to the coastal zone. However, increasing rates of salt marsh vertical accretion over recent decades largely offset reductions in metal concentrations, resulting in rates of metal accumulation in coastal salt marsh soils that have not changed or, in some instances, increased over time.

Practical Guide to Measuring Wetland Carbon Pools and Fluxes.

Wetlands cover a small portion of the world, but have disproportionate influence on global carbon (C) sequestration, carbon dioxide and methane emissions, and aquatic C fluxes. However, the underlying biogeochemical processes that affect wetland C pools and fluxes are complex and dynamic, making measurements of wetland C challenging. Over decades of research, many observational, experimental, and analytical approaches have been developed to understand and quantify pools and fluxes of wetland C. Sampling approaches range in their representation of wetland C from short to long timeframes and local to landscape spatial scales. This review summarizes common and cutting-edge methodological approaches for quantifying wetland C pools and fluxes. We first define each of the major C pools and fluxes and provide rationale for their importance to wetland C dynamics. For each approach, we clarify what component of wetland C is measured and its spatial and temporal representativeness and constraints. We describe practical considerations for each approach, such as where and when an approach is typically used, who can conduct the measurements (expertise, training requirements), and how approaches are conducted, including considerations on equipment complexity and costs. Finally, we review key covariates and ancillary measurements that enhance the interpretation of findings and facilitate model development. The protocols that we describe to measure soil, water, vegetation, and gases are also relevant for related disciplines such as ecology. Improved quality and consistency of data collection and reporting across studies will help reduce global uncertainties and develop management strategies to use wetlands as nature-based climate solutions. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13157-023-01722-2.

Cooperative microbial interactions mediate community biogeochemical responses to saltwater intrusion in wetland soils.

In freshwater wetlands, competitive and cooperative interactions between respiratory, fermentative and methanogenic microbes mediate the decomposition of organic matter. These interactions may be disrupted by saltwater intrusion disturbances that enhance the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), intensifying their competition with syntrophic bacteria and methanogens for electron donors. We simulated saltwater intrusion into wetland soil microcosms and examined biogeochemical and microbial responses, employing metabolic inhibitors to isolate the activity of various microbial functional groups. Sulfate additions increased total carbon dioxide production but decreased methane production. Butyrate degradation assays showed continued (but lower) levels of syntrophic metabolism despite strong demand by SRB for this key intermediate decomposition product and a shift in the methanogen community toward acetoclastic members. One month after removing SRB competition, total methane production recovered by only ∼50%. Similarly, butyrate assays showed an altered accumulation of products (including less methane), although overall rates of syntrophic butyrate breakdown largely recovered. These effects illustrate that changes in carbon mineralization following saltwater intrusion are driven by more than the oft-cited competition between SRB and methanogens for shared electron donors. Thus, the impacts of disturbances on wetland biogeochemistry are likely to persist until cooperative and competitive microbial metabolic interactions can recover fully.

Novel microbial community composition and carbon biogeochemistry emerge over time following saltwater intrusion in wetlands.

Sea level rise and changes in precipitation can cause saltwater intrusion into historically freshwater wetlands, leading to shifts in microbial metabolism that alter greenhouse gas emissions and soil carbon sequestration. Saltwater intrusion modifies soil physicochemistry and can immediately affect microbial metabolism, but further alterations to biogeochemical processing can occur over time as microbial communities adapt to the changed environmental conditions. To assess temporal changes in microbial community composition and biogeochemical activity due to saltwater intrusion, soil cores were transplanted from a tidal freshwater marsh to a downstream mesohaline marsh and periodically sampled over 1 year. This experimental saltwater intrusion produced immediate changes in carbon mineralization rates, whereas shifts in the community composition developed more gradually. Salinity affected the composition of the prokaryotic community but did not exert a strong influence on the community composition of fungi. After only 1 week of saltwater exposure, carbon dioxide production doubled and methane production decreased by three orders of magnitude. By 1 month, carbon dioxide production in the transplant was comparable to the saltwater controls. Over time, we observed a partial recovery in methane production which strongly correlated with an increase in the relative abundance of three orders of hydrogenotrophic methanogens. Taken together, our results suggest that ecosystem responses to saltwater intrusion are dynamic over time as complex interactions develop between microbial communities and the soil organic carbon pool. The gradual changes in microbial community structure we observed suggest that previously freshwater wetlands may not experience an equilibration of ecosystem function until long after initial saltwater intrusion. Our results suggest that during this transitional period, likely lasting years to decades, these ecosystems may exhibit enhanced greenhouse gas production through greater soil respiration and continued methanogenesis.

Contributions of organic and inorganic matter to sediment volume and accretion in tidal wetlands at steady state.

A mixing model derived from first principles describes the bulk density (BD) of intertidal wetland sediments as a function of loss on ignition (LOI). The model assumes that the bulk volume of sediment equates to the sum of self-packing volumes of organic and mineral components or BD = 1/[LOI/k1 + (1-LOI)/k2], where k1 and k2 are the self-packing densities of the pure organic and inorganic components, respectively. The model explained 78% of the variability in total BD when fitted to 5075 measurements drawn from 33 wetlands distributed around the conterminous United States. The values of k1 and k2 were estimated to be 0.085 ± 0.0007 g cm-3 and 1.99 ± 0.028 g cm-3, respectively. Based on the fitted organic density (k1) and constrained by primary production, the model suggests that the maximum steady state accretion arising from the sequestration of refractory organic matter is ≤ 0.3 cm yr-1. Thus, tidal peatlands are unlikely to indefinitely survive a higher rate of sea-level rise in the absence of a significant source of mineral sediment. Application of k2 to a mineral sediment load typical of East and eastern Gulf Coast estuaries gives a vertical accretion rate from inorganic sediment of 0.2 cm yr-1. Total steady state accretion is the sum of the parts and therefore should not be greater than 0.5 cm yr-1 under the assumptions of the model. Accretion rates could deviate from this value depending on variation in plant productivity, root:shoot ratio, suspended sediment concentration, sediment-capture efficiency, and episodic events.

Life at the energetic edge: kinetics of circumneutral iron oxidation by lithotrophic iron-oxidizing bacteria isolated from the wetland-plant rhizosphere.

Batch cultures of a lithotrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacterium, strain BrT, isolated from the rhizosphere of a wetland plant, were grown in bioreactors and used to determine the significance of microbial Fe(II) oxidation at circumneutral pH and to identify abiotic variables that affect the partitioning between microbial oxidation and chemical oxidation. Strain BrT grew only in the presence of an Fe(II) source, with an average doubling time of 25 h. In one set of experiments, Fe(II) oxidation rates were measured before and after the cells were poisoned with sodium azide. These experiments indicated that strain BrT accounted for 18 to 53% of the total iron oxidation, and the average cellular growth yield was 0.70 g of CH2O per mol of Fe(II) oxidized. In a second set of experiments, Fe(II) was constantly added to bioreactors inoculated with live cells, killed cells, or no cells. A statistical model fitted to the experimental data demonstrated that metabolic Fe(II) oxidation accounted for up to 62% of the total oxidation. The total Fe(II) oxidation rates in these experiments were strongly limited by the rate of Fe(II) delivery to the system and were also influenced by O2 and total iron concentrations. Additionally, the model suggested that the microbes inhibited rates of abiotic Fe(II) oxidation, perhaps by binding Fe(II) to bacterial exopolymers. The net effect of strain BrT was to accelerate total oxidation rates by up to 18% compared to rates obtained with cell-free treatments. The results suggest that neutrophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria may compete for limited O2 in the rhizosphere and therefore influence other wetland biogeochemical cycles.