Attitudes of Swedish midwives towards management of extremely preterm labour and birth.

OBJECTIVE: the aim of the study was to ascertain the attitudes of Swedish midwives towards management of very preterm labour and birth and to compare the attitudes of midwives at university hospitals with those at general hospitals. DESIGN: this cross-sectional descriptive and comparative study used an anonymous self-administrated questionnaire for data collection. Descriptive and analytic statistics were carried out for analysis. PARTICIPANTS: the answers from midwives (n=259) were collected in a prospective SWEMID study. SETTING: the midwives had experience of working on delivery wards in maternity units with neonatal intensive care units (NICU) in Sweden. FINDINGS: in the management of very preterm labour and birth, midwives agreed to initiate interventions concerning steroid prophylaxis at 23 gestational weeks (GW), caesarean section for preterm labour only at 25 GW, when to give information to the neonatologist before birth at 23 GW, and when to suggest transfer to NICU at 23 GW. Midwives at university hospitals were prone to start interventions at an earlier gestational age than the midwives at general hospitals. Midwives at university hospitals seemed to be more willing to disclose information to the parents. KEY CONCLUSIONS: midwives with experience of handling very preterm births at 21-28 GW develop a positive attitude to interventions at an earlier gestational age as compared to midwives without such experience. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: based on these results we suggest more communication and transfer of information about the advances in perinatal care and exchange of knowledge between the staff at general and university hospitals. Establishment of platforms for inter-professional discussions about ethically difficult situations in perinatal care, might benefit the management of very preterm labour and birth.

Attitudes of midwives in Sweden toward a woman's refusal of an emergency cesarean section or a cesarean section on request.

BACKGROUND: A woman's refusal or request for a cesarean section can be a problem for midwives and obstetricians working in maternity units. The objective of this study was to describe the attitudes of midwives in Sweden toward the obstetrician's decision making in relation to a woman's refusal of an emergency cesarean section and to a woman's request for a cesarean section without a medical indication. METHODS: The study has a cross-sectional multicenter design and used an anonymous, structured, and standardized questionnaire for data collection. The study group comprised midwives who had experience working at a delivery ward at 13 maternity units with neonatal intensive care units in Sweden (n = 259). RESULTS: In the case of a woman's refusal to undergo an emergency cesarean section for fetal reasons, most midwives (89%) thought that the obstetrician should try to persuade the woman to agree. Concerning a woman's request for a cesarean section without any medical indications, most midwives thought that the obstetrician should agree if the woman had previous maternal or fetal complications. The reason was to support the woman's decision out of respect for her autonomy; the midwives at six university hospitals were less willing to accept the woman's autonomy in this situation. If the only reason was "her own choice," 77 percent of the midwives responded that the obstetrician should not comply. CONCLUSIONS: The main focus of midwives seems to be the baby's health, and therefore they do not always agree with respect to a woman's refusal or request for a cesarean section. The midwives prefer to continue to explain the situation and persuade the woman to agree with the recommendation of the obstetrician.

Scientific dishonesty--questionnaire to doctoral students in Sweden.

'Scientific dishonesty' implies the fabrication, falsification or plagiarism in proposing, performing or reviewing research or in reporting research results. A questionnaire was given to postgraduate students at the medical faculties in Sweden who attended a course in research ethics during the academic year 2008/2009 and 58% answered (range 29%-100%). Less than one-third of the respondents wrote that they had heard about scientific dishonesty in the previous 12 months. Pressure, concerning in what order the author should be mentioned, was reported by about 1 in 10 students. We suggest that all departments conducting research should have a written policy about acceptable research behaviour and that all doctoral students should be informed of the content of this policy. Participants in the research groups concerned should also be required to analyse published articles about scientific dishonesty and critically discuss what could be done about unethical conduct.

Noddings's caring ethics theory applied in a paediatric setting.

Since the 1990s, numerous studies on the relationship between parents and their children have been reported on in the literature and implemented as a philosophy of care in most paediatric units. The purpose of this article is to understand the process of nurses' care for children in a paediatric setting by using Noddings's caring ethics theory. Noddings's theory is in part described from a theoretical perspective outlining the basic idea of the theory followed by a critique of her work. Important conceptions in her theory are natural caring (reception, relation, engrossment, motivational displacement, reciprocity) and ethical caring (physical self, ethical self, and ethical ideal). As a nurse one holds a duty of care to patients and, in exercising this duty, the nurse must be able to develop a relationship with the patient including giving the patient total authenticity in a 'feeling with' the patient. Noddings's theory is analysed and described in three examples from the paediatrics. In the first example, the nurse cared for the patient in natural caring while in the second situation, the nurse strived for the ethical caring of the patient. In the third example, the nurse rejected the impulse to care and deliberately turned her back to ethics and abandoned her ethical caring. According to the Noddings's theory, caring for the patient enables the nurse to obtain ethical insights from the specific type of nursing care which forms an important contribution to an overall increase of an ethical consciousness in the nurse.

Screening for postpartum depression with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS): an ethical analysis.

AIMS: To assess the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), a self-administered questionnaire created to screen for symptoms of postpartum depression in the community, from an epidemiological and ethical perspective. Screening, as the practice of investigating apparently healthy individuals to detect unrecognised disease or its precursors, has interpretation problems and is complicated by deliberations on probabilities for something to occur, on which the scientific community is unanimous. METHODS: Our ethical analysis is made using a framework with two different dimensions, the ethical principles autonomy and beneficence and the affected persons. To balance the ethical costs and the ethical benefits of EPDS an analogy with the assessment of pharmaceutics is used. RESULTS: In this article we argue that routine EPDS screening of Swedish postpartum women would lead to considerable ethical problems due to the weak scientific foundation of the screening instrument. Despite a multitude of published studies, the side-effects in terms of misclassifications have not been considered carefully. The EPDS does not function very well as a routine screening instrument. The dualism created is too reductive and fails to recognize the plurality of difference that exists in the social word. CONCLUSIONS: Public health authorities should not advocate screening of unproved value. Screening is not just a medical issue but also an ethical one.

Cesarean delivery on maternal request: can the ethical problem be solved by the principlist approach?

In this article, we use the principlist approach to identify, analyse and attempt to solve the ethical problem raised by a pregnant woman's request for cesarean delivery in absence of medical indications. We use two different types of premises: factual (facts about cesarean delivery and specifically attitudes of obstetricians as derived from the EUROBS European study) and value premises (principles of beneficence and non-maleficence, respect for autonomy and justice).Beneficence/non-maleficence entails physicians' responsibility to minimise harms and maximise benefits. Avoiding its inherent risks makes a prima facie case against cesarean section without medical indication. However, as vaginal delivery can have unintended consequences, there is a need to balance the somewhat dissimilar risks and benefits. The principle of autonomy poses a challenge in case of disagreement between the pregnant woman and the physician. Improved communication aimed to enable better informed choice may overcome some instances of disagreement. The principle of justice prohibits unfair discrimination, and broadly favours optimising resource utilisation. Available evidence supports vaginal birth in uncomplicated term pregnancies as the standard of care. The principlist approach offered a useful framework for ethical analysis of cesarean delivery on maternal request, identified the rights and duties of those involved, and helped reach a conclusion, although conflict at the individual level may remain challenging.

Physicians' experiences with end-of-life decision-making: survey in 6 European countries and Australia.

BACKGROUND: In this study we investigated (a) to what extent physicians have experience with performing a range of end-of-life decisions (ELDs), (b) if they have no experience with performing an ELD, would they be willing to do so under certain conditions and (c) which background characteristics are associated with having experience with/or being willing to make such ELDs. METHODS: An anonymous questionnaire was sent to 16,486 physicians from specialities in which death is common: Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland. RESULTS: The response rate differed between countries (39-68%). The experience of foregoing life-sustaining treatment ranged between 37% and 86%: intensifying the alleviation of pain or other symptoms while taking into account possible hastening of death between 57% and 95%, and experience with deep sedation until death between 12% and 46%. Receiving a request for hastening death differed between 34% and 71%, and intentionally hastening death on the explicit request of a patient between 1% and 56%. CONCLUSION: There are differences between countries in experiences with ELDs, in willingness to perform ELDs and in receiving requests for euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide. Foregoing treatment and intensifying alleviation of pain and symptoms are practiced and accepted by most physicians in all countries. Physicians with training in palliative care are more inclined to perform ELDs, as are those who attend to higher numbers of terminal patients. Thus, this seems not to be only a matter of opportunity, but also a matter of attitude.

From cure to palliation: agreement, timing, and decision making within the staff.

Important issues in the transition from curative treatment to palliative care are agreement, timing, and decision making. A survey of 309 nurses and 415 physicians in Sweden showed that 61% of the nurses and 83% of the physicians thought agreement was current practice. None said that the decisions were made too early, but 19% of the nurses and 14% of the physicians thought that they often were made too late. Very few respondents stated that such decisions are changed, 0% and 1%, respectively. More than half of the informants made detailed comments on such transitions indicating that awareness and flexibility are desirable to make well-informed decisions. Three themes that emerged from the analysis concerning the decision to stop curative treatment and focus on palliative care were that the staff members should (if possible) make such decisions in agreement and should sometimes make the decisions earlier and that well-based reasons are required to make changes.

Physician discussions with terminally ill patients: a cross-national comparison.

A major issue in the care of terminally ill patients is communication and information provision. This paper reports the extent to which physicians in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland discuss topics relevant to end of life care with terminally ill patients and their relatives (without first informing the patient), and possible associations between physician-specific characteristics and such discussions. Response rates to the postal survey ranged from 39% to 68% (n =10139). Physicians in most of the countries except Italy ;in principle, always' discuss issues related to terminal illness with their patients but not with patients' relatives without first informing the patient, unless the relatives ask. Cross-national differences remained strong after controlling for physician characteristics. The majority of physicians appeared to support the principle of patient-centred care to terminally ill patients, consistent with palliative care philosophy and with the law and/or professional guidelines in most of the countries studied.

Human dignity in paediatrics: the effects of health care.

Human dignity is grounded in basic human attributes such as life and self-respect. When people cannot stand up for themselves they may lose their dignity towards themselves and others. The aim of this study was to elucidate if dignity remains intact for family members during care procedures in a children's hospital. A qualitative approach was adopted, using open non-participation observation. The findings indicate that dignity remains intact in family-centred care where all concerned parties encourage each other in a collaborative relationship. Dignity is shattered when practitioners care from their own perspective without seeing the individual in front of them. When there is a break in care, family members can restore their dignity because the interruption helps them to master their emotions. Family members' dignity is shattered and remains damaged when they are emotionally overwhelmed; they surrender themselves to practitioners' care, losing their self-esteem and self-respect.

Patient refusal of emergency cesarean delivery: a study of obstetricians' attitudes in Europe.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the attitudes of a large sample of obstetricians from eight European countries toward a competent woman's refusal to consent to an emergency cesarean delivery for acute fetal distress. METHODS: Obstetricians' attitudes in response to a hypothetical clinical case were surveyed through an anonymous, self-administered questionnaire. The sample included 1,530 obstetricians (response rate 77%) from 105 maternity units (response rate 70%) in eight countries: France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. RESULTS: In every country, the majority of obstetricians would keep trying to persuade the woman, telling her that failure to perform cesarean delivery might result in the fetus surviving with disability, or even that her own life might be endangered. In Spain, France, Italy, and, to a lesser extent, Germany and Luxembourg, a consistent proportion of physicians would seek a court order to protect fetal welfare or avoid possible legal liability or both. In the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Netherlands, several respondents (59%, 41%, and 37%, respectively) would accept the woman's decision and assist vaginal delivery. Only a small minority (from 0 in the United Kingdom to 10% in France) would proceed with cesarean delivery without a court order. CONCLUSION: Case law arising from a few countries (United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom) and professional guidelines favoring women's autonomy have not solved the underlying ethical conflict, and in Europe acceptance of a woman's right to refuse cesarean delivery, at least in emergency situations, is not uniform. Differing attitudes between obstetricians from the eight countries may reflect diverse legal and ethical environments. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Responders and non-responders in a study on medical end-of-life decisions in Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the direction and magnitude of participation bias in end-of-life research. METHODS: Within the framework of a European survey on medical end-of-life decisions, a non-response study was conducted among physicians in Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland. People were asked about their attitudes and experiences in the area of medial end-of-life decision. The response rates ranged from 12.8% (Netherlands) to 39.4% (Switzerland). The responders (n = 5403) and the non-responders (n = 866) were compared regarding socio-demographic characteristics, experiences with terminal patients and agreement with attitudes towards "end-of-life decisions". The reasons for non-participation to the study were analyzed. RESULTS: Non-response did not cause socio-demographic distortion, but non-responders had statistically significantly fewer terminal patients than responders. Agreement rates were statistically significantly higher among responders than among non-responders for euthanasia, non-treatment decision and life-preserving statements. Neutral answers were statistically significantly more frequent among non-responders than among responders for life-preserving and euthanasia statements. The most commonly mentioned reason for non-participation was "lack of time". CONCLUSION: Non-participation does cause an overestimation of proponents of life-shortening, as well as of life-preserving end-of-life decisions. Non-responders more often have ambiguous attitudes towards end-of-life decisions than responders.

Human tissue samples and ethics--attitudes of the general public in Sweden to biobank research.

PURPOSE: To survey the attitudes of the general public in Sweden to biobank research and to discuss the findings in the light of some well-known ethical principles. METHODS: A questionnaire was used to survey the opinions of the general public in Sweden, and an ethical analysis (using the principles of autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence and justice) was performed to discuss the possible conditions of such research. FINDINGS: Between 3 and 9% answered that they did not want their samples to be collected and stored in a biobank. Many respondents required information about the purpose of the research and wanted to be able to consent or refuse. About one third of the respondents said they would have answered differently if financial gain was involved and those who commented indicated a more negative attitude. The principle of autonomy maintains that the right to self-determination should be respected, and the principles of non-maleficence and beneficence that the probable harms and benefits resulting from a particular project by using samples from a biobank should be balanced. The general public disagree about how these principles are to be balanced. INTERPRETATION: In the light of the findings different interpretations of the situation as well as possible alternatives are discussed in this paper.

End-of-life decision making in Europe and Australia: a physician survey.

BACKGROUND: The frequencies with which physicians make different medical end-of-life decisions (ELDs) may differ between countries, but comparison between countries has been difficult owing to the use of dissimilar research methods. METHODS: A written questionnaire was sent to a random sample of physicians from 9 specialties in 6 European countries and Australia to investigate possible differences in the frequencies of physicians' willingness to perform ELDs and to identify predicting factors. Response rates ranged from 39% to 68% (N = 10 139). Using hypothetical cases, physicians were asked whether they would (probably) make each of 4 ELDs. RESULTS: In all the countries, 75% to 99% of physicians would withhold chemotherapy or intensify symptom treatment at the request of a patient with terminal cancer. In most cases, more than half of all physicians would also be willing to deeply sedate such a patient until death. However, there was generally less willingness to administer drugs with the explicit intention of hastening death at the request of the patient. The most important predictor of ELDs was a request from a patient with decisional capacity (odds ratio, 2.1-140.0). Shorter patient life expectancy and uncontrollable pain were weaker predictors but were more stable across countries and across the various ELDs (odds ratios, 1.1-2.4 and 0.9-2.4, respectively). CONCLUSION: Cultural and legal factors seem to influence the frequencies of different ELDs and the strength of their determinants across countries, but they do not change the essence of decision making.

Continuous deep sedation: physicians' experiences in six European countries.

Continuous deep sedation (CDS) is sometimes used to treat refractory symptoms in terminally ill patients. The aim of this paper was to estimate the frequency and characteristics of CDS in six European countries: Belgium, Denmark, Italy, The Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland. Deaths reported to death registries were sampled and the reporting doctors received a mailed questionnaire about the medical decision making that preceded the death of the patient. The total number of deaths studied was 20,480. The response rate ranged between 44% (Italy) and 75% (The Netherlands). Of all deaths, CDS was applied in 2.5% in Denmark and up to 8.5% in Italy. Of all patients receiving CDS, 35% (Italy) and up to 64% (Denmark and The Netherlands) did not receive artificial nutrition or hydration. Patients who received CDS were more often male, younger than 80 years old, more likely to have had cancer, and died more often in a hospital compared to nonsudden deaths without CDS. The high variability of frequency and characteristics of CDS in the studied European countries points out the importance of medical education and scientific debate on this issue.