The Effect of Exogenous Amylase Supplementation on the Nutritional Value of Pea (Pisum sativum L.) for Broiler Chickens.

The present study aimed to investigate whether the exogenous addition of amylase enhances the nutritional value of pea seeds for broiler chickens. In total, 84 1-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were used for the experimental study. During the first phase of the experiment (1-16 d), all birds in each treatment were fed with a corn-soybean meal reference diet. After this time, the first treatment (control) was still fed the reference diet. In the second and third treatment, 50% of the reference diet was replaced with 50% pea seeds. In addition, the third treatment was supplemented with exogenous amylase. Animal excreta were collected on 21 d and 22 d of the experiment. The birds were sacrificed at the end of the experiment (23 d), and samples of ileum content were collected. The experimental results showed that the exogenous addition of amylase significantly improved (p < 0.05) the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of the crude protein (CP), starch, and dry matter (DM) of pea. In addition, an improvement in the AID of essential amino acids in pea seeds (except Phe) was observed. The trend in the AMEN values was also noted (p = 0.076). It can be concluded that supplementation with exogenous amylase improves the nutritional value of pea seeds in broiler chicken nutrition.

Prevalence and characterisation of antimicrobial resistance genes and class 1 and 2 integrons in multiresistant Escherichia coli isolated from poultry production.

A global increase in the populations of drug resistant bacteria exerts negative effects on animal production and human health. Our study has been focused on the assessment of resistance determinants in relation to phenotypic resistance of the 74 commensal E. coli isolates present in different ecological environments. The samples were collected from poultry litter, feces, and neck skin. Among the microorganisms isolated from the poultry litter (group A), the highest resistance was noted against AMP and DOX (100%). In the E. coli extracts from the cloacal swabs (group B), the highest resistance was observed against AMP (100%) and CIP (92%). The meat samples (group C) were characterized by resistance to AMP (100%) and STX (94.7%). Genes encoding resistance to ß-lactams (blaTEM, blaCTX-M), fluoroquinolones (qnrA, qnrB, qnrS), aminoglycosides (strA-strB, aphA1, aac(3)-II), sulfonamides (sul1, sul2, sul3), trimethoprim (dfr1, dfr5, dfr7/17) and tetracyclines (tetA, tetB) were detected in the studied bacterial isolates. The presence of class 1 and 2 integrons was confirmed in 75% of the MDR E. coli isolates (plasmid DNA), of which 60% contained class 1 integrons, 15% contained class 2 integrons, and 11.7% carried integrons of both classes. Thus, it may be concluded that integrons are the common mediators of antimicrobial resistance among commensal multidrug resistant Escherichia coli at important stages of poultry production.

Comprehensive Assessment of Environmental Pollution in a Poultry Farm Depending on the Season and the Laying Hen Breeding System.

The odors and dust emitted from hen houses affect human health and the condition of crops. The source of fumes is an element of the poultry house environment that affects the level of dust (litter and feed), the concentration of volatile compounds and the composition of the microflora (litter, dust and fodder). The research carried out as part of this study is a comprehensive assessment of the microbiological contamination (Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, and microscopic fungi) of all the elements that make up the environment of the poultry house (feed, litter, dust pollution and the atmosphere of the poultry house) in an annual cycle. The air from both types of farms is tested in terms of the quantity and quality of volatile compounds. Two types of laying hens reared on litter were compared: commercial and backyard farms. It was found that the seasons of the year and the system of keeping hens have a significant impact on the microbiological contamination with volatile compounds of the environment and the atmosphere of the hen houses. The obtained results of chemical, microbiological and questionnaire tests show that commercial farms carry a lower microbiological risk to the environment than backyard farm.

Welfare Health and Productivity in Commercial Pig Herds.

In recent years, there have been very dynamic changes in both pork production and pig breeding technology around the world. The general trend of increasing the efficiency of pig production, with reduced employment, requires optimisation and a comprehensive approach to herd management. One of the most important elements on the way to achieving this goal is to maintain animal welfare and health. The health of the pigs on the farm is also a key aspect in production economics. The need to maintain a high health status of pig herds by eliminating the frequency of different disease units and reducing the need for antimicrobial substances is part of a broadly understood high potential herd management strategy. Thanks to the use of sensors (cameras, microphones, accelerometers, or radio-frequency identification transponders), the images, sounds, movements, and vital signs of animals are combined through algorithms and analysed for non-invasive monitoring of animals, which allows for early detection of diseases, improves their welfare, and increases the productivity of breeding. Automated, innovative early warning systems based on continuous monitoring of specific physiological (e.g., body temperature) and behavioural parameters can provide an alternative to direct diagnosis and visual assessment by the veterinarian or the herd keeper.

Effects of feeding intact, ground and/or pelleted rapeseed on nutrient digestibility and growth performance of broiler chickens.

In this study, the effect of grinding or pelleting of rapeseed on the digestibility, apparent metabolisable energy (AMEN), growth performance and gizzard weight of broiler chickens was evaluated. In Exp. 1, four treatments were tested (240 broiler chickens, 20 replications, 3 birds per cage). Birds received either a basal diet or were fed with rapeseed of different sized particles (fine, medium and coarse ground, respectively). In Exp. 2, 10 treatments were assessed (360 chickens, 12 replications, 3 birds per cage), where five different diets (a basal diet and four diets with intact rapeseed, fine ground, medium ground or coarse ground rapeseed, respectively) were fed non-pelleted or pelleted. In Exp. 3, two treatments were compared (224 broiler chickens, 14 replications, 8 birds per floor pen): fine ground rapeseed (FG) and intact rapeseed (IS). Compared with medium and coarse ground rapeseed, fine grinding increased in Exp. 1 the AMEN of rapeseed and the precaecal digestibility (PD) of dry matter and ether extract (EE) (p < 0.05). In Exp. 2, the content of AMEN and the PD of EE and crude protein (CP) increased as the degree of grinding increased when diets were not pelleted (p < 0.01). In contrast, the significantly highest values for these parameters were measured after pelleting without effect of grinding, resulting in a significant interaction between pelleting and grinding (p < 0.001). In Exp. 3, performance of chickens was not affected by dietary treatments, but gizzard weight and the PD of CP were higher when IS were included in the diet (p < 0.05). The results suggested that fine grinding may be used to increase the feeding value of full-fat rapeseed for broiler chickens. Nevertheless, pelleting of diets with rapeseed seemed to be much more effective in the reduction of particle size than grinding.

The influence of the conditions of acquisition and storage of table eggs on changes in their quality and the presence of mycobiota and Fusarium mycotoxins.

The study showed that the hen housing system and egg storage conditions had significant influence on differences in the qualitative traits of eggs. The most rapid qualitative traits changes were observed in the eggs laid by the hens kept in the free-range and litter systems. After the first week of storage fungi were found on the eggshell surface but significant growth of fungi on the eggshell surface was noted after 3 wk, regardless of the storage conditions. Higher humidity during egg storage causes the dynamic development of fungi in the albumen. The principal component analysis proved the dependency between ergosterol and the trichothecene concentration in the albumen. Mycotoxins in the albumen indicate the presence of pathogenic species of microscopic fungi. The albumen of the eggs laid by the hens kept in cages had the lowest concentration of mycotoxins. The results of the study showed that the conditions of the henhouse environment significantly influenced the initial contamination of eggshells. Egg storage conditions, i.e., high air humidity, favor the development of fungi on the eggshell surface, affect the dynamics of fungal growth into the albumen and the production of mycotoxins.

Characteristics of egg parts, chemical composition and nutritive value of Japanese quail eggs--a review.

All nutrients including proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals and growth factors required by the developing embryo, as well as a number of defense factors, can be found in avian eggs. Eggs are also a source of other substances with biological functions and activities inter alia immune proteins and enzymes. Although chicken egg consumption is currently at the highest level, eggs from other species are also becoming popular. Since our knowledge about Japanese quail eggs is still limited, the aim of this review was to shed light on characteristics of egg parts, chemical composition and nutritive value of quail eggs.

Microbiological response of Japanese quail eggs to disinfection and location in the setter during incubation.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of ethyl alcohol (75%) disinfection of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) hatching eggs and analysis of microbial contamination of eggs during incubation, depending on their location in the setter. Disinfected eggshells were found to have lower total bacteria (TBC) and fungi (TFC) count. Concerning the vertical location of eggs (top, middle, bottom), disinfected eggs were characterized by similar values of the TBC (x = 1.54 log CFU/shell surface). For eggs without disinfection, it was found that those from middle and bottom levels of the setter had similar and lower TBC (by about 1.22 log CFU/shell surface) as compared to eggs from the top level. No statistically significant differences between levels were found in the case of TFC. Hatch breakouts (dead-in-shell embryos) from non-disinfected eggs were characterized by higher TBC (on average 0.37 log CFU/g). Disinfected eggs, located at the middle and bottom levels of the incubator, had similar and lower TBC in comparison with eggs from the top level. There were no microscopic fungi inside disinfected eggs of hatch breakouts. On the other hand, the non-disinfected eggs, placed on trays from the middle level of the incubator, had greater TFC (by about 0.9 log CFU/g) than those from top and bottom levels. Regardless of whether the eggs were disinfected or not, the largest group of microscopic fungi included Aspergillus and Penicillium.

Body weight and some biometrical traits of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) at different ages.

Although the growth of pheasants is an important issue, there are few publications providing information on body weight and morphometrics of pheasants at different ages. The aim of this study was to investigate body weight, tarsus length, wing length and wingspan in farmed pheasants aged 3-16 weeks. The study was carried out on 50 pheasants (31 females and 19 males). All one-day old birds were marked and kept until the 16th week of life. In the 3rd 8 h 12th and 16th weeks of life all pheasants were weighted and tarsus length, wing length and wingspan were measured. Male chicks appeared to be significantly heavier than females (P< or = 0.01) already in the third week of life. Also their wings were longer and their wingspan attained higher values (P < or = 0.05). Absolute gains of the majority of traits also differed between sexes (being larger in males) in all studied periods. Values of body weight, tarsus length and wingspan noted in the third week of life were significantly correlated with all later measurements. Thus body weight and some biometrical traits of pheasant chicks measured already at the 3rd week of life could be applied as predictors of future body weight and size.

Effect of in ovo injection of vitamin C during incubation on hatchability of chickens and ducks.

The aim of the investigation was to ascertain the influence of different doses of vitamin C injected at selected dates of incubation into the eggs of broiler breeders and Pekin ducks on hatchability. The injected vitamin C doses were administered into the air cell on the 13th, 15th and 17th days (3 and 6 mg--chickens) and on the 12th and 20th days (4 and 8 mg--ducks) of incubation. In the case of chickens, no significant differences were recorded between the control and experimental groups with regard to hatchability, although the highest value of hatchability from fertilized eggs was determined in the group injected with 6 mg of vitamin C on the 15th day of incubation. On the other hand, in ducks, significant differences were found between the control and experimental groups (4 mg of vitamin C administered on days 12 and 20 and 8 mg of vitamin C injected on day 20 of incubation) regarding hatchability. The value of this trait was higher in the group of eggs injected with ascorbic acid in comparison with the eggs which were not treated. On average, the difference amounted to 32.5 percentage points. Similarly, in the case of the number of dead embryos and unhatched chicks, better results were observed in the above-mentioned experimental groups. In summary, vitamin C injected into chicken eggs failed to influence hatchability. In the case of duck eggs, it was demonstrated that their injection on the 20th day of incubation with selected doses of vitamin C (4 and 8 mg/egg) improved hatchability by decreasing the proportions of dead and unhatched embryos.

Laying, egg and hatchability characteristics in ostrich (Struthio camelus) at different age.

The experimental material comprised 7 ostrich families (7 males and 14 females) of which five families were at the age of 7 and two at the age of 5 years. In the course of the entire reproductive season, the following parameters were analysed: length of the laying period, mean laying rate, number of eggs laid by one female, proportion ofhatching eggs, egg weight and shape, egg weight lost during incubation, egg fertilisation, percentage of dead embryos and unhatched chicks, hatchability from fertilised and set eggs. Seven year-old ostriches were characterised by shorter laying period (134 days) but, at the same time, by higher proportions of hatching eggs. This group was also characterised by high egg fertilisation (79.7%) as well as high hatchability indices at simultaneous highest embryo mortality during incubation (11.6 %). Five year-old ostriches exhibited a longer laying period (175 days) during which females laid more eggs (49 pcs.). In addition, this group was characterised by a smaller proportion of hatching eggs, better egg fertilisation indices (83.5%) and hatchability results. Moreover, the determined higher egg shape index indicates that the 5 year-old females laid eggs which were more spherical. Recapitulating, the obtained results indicate that, under Polish conditions, better indices of laying performance, egg fertilisation and hatchability were observed in the group of 5 year-old ostriches.

Egg quality of Japanese quail depends on layer age and storage time.

The aim of the study was to analyse egg quality changes of Japanese quail during the reproductive season and after several days of storage. A significantly higher egg weight was recorded in week 9 than in week 25 and week 31 of age ofbirds. The egg specific gravity value of eggs also decreased with the age of quails. The smallest yolk weight and its percentage proportion in egg mass were observed in week 25. Eggs laid in weeks 9 and 25 were characterised by similar and lower (P < or = 0.05) white weight in comparison to those examined on the last date. The highest white proportion in egg weight was recorded during the 25th week. The value of this trait was similar or smaller on the remaining dates. Similar and lower values of the white index and Haugh units, in comparison with the first date, were determined in eggs laid on weeks 25 and 31, whereas similar and greater eggshell thickness than in the 9th week of age was recorded on the last two dates of examination. Lower (P < or = 0.05) egg weight was observed after 5 and 8 than after 0 (measured on the day of laying) days of storage. Likewise, smaller egg specific gravity was recorded after three consecutive periods of storage in comparison with the eggs examined on the day of laying. Eggs examined after 3, 5 and 8 days of storage, in comparison with those stored for 0 days, were characterised by lower yolk index. Significantly smaller weight and white index than after 0 days were determined in eggs stored, respectively, for 5 and 8 as well as for 3, 5 and 8 days. Similarly, smaller numbers of Haugh units were determined after 3 consecutive storage periods in comparison with the eggs examined on the day of laying. Eggs stored for 0 and 3 days were characterised by a greater eggshell weight than those examined after 5 and 8 days. The weight of Japanese quail eggs decreased significantly from day 5 onwards, whereas the egg specific gravity-- from the 3rd day of storage. Yolk and white quality began to deteriorate already after 3 days of egg storage. It appears, therefore, that egg storage of Japanese quails before hatching lasting more than 3 days in the analysed conditions deteriorated the eggshell quality and internal egg traits.

Storage time and eggshell colour of pheasant eggs vs. the number of blastodermal cells and hatchability results.

The aim of this study was to investigate the number of the embryo blastodermal cells and hatchability of pheasant from eggs of different eggshell colours depending on the length of the storage period before hatching. On the day of collection, dark-brown and olive eggs were characterised by a similar and significantly higher (by about 48%) number of embryo BCs in comparison with light-brown and blue eggs. Dark-brown eggs stored longer than one day had the highest, while blue-shelled eggs the lowest, number of BCs. The number of BCs found in eggs with blue and light-brown coloured eggshells stored for 10 days was similar and significantly lower (by 27.7%) in comparison with dark-brown eggs. With the lengthening of the storage period, the number of blastodermal cells in eggs of all eggshell colours declined as a result of necrobiosis. In comparison with the dark-brown and olive-shelled eggs, eggs with blue eggshells had higher (by about 7.0%) weight loss during the 21 days until hatching. The dark-brown and olive eggs were found to have a 10.3% higher proportion of eggs considered as fertilised in comparison with the blue-shelled eggs. Eggs with dark-brown shells stored for 2-4 days prior to hatching, in comparison with blue-shelled eggs, had a higher proportion of fertilised eggs. The dark-brown and olive eggs stored for 7 and more days before hatching possessed a higher value of this trait in comparison with the eggs of light-brown and blue eggshells (x = 80.9 against 66.4%). The highest drop in the share of fertilised eggs, which amounted on average to 3.25% for each day of storage, was observed in the blue-shelled eggs. The dark-brown eggs stored for 7 days before being placed in an incubator had higher hatchability from fertilised eggs (by 17.8%) in comparison with the eggs with blue eggshells. In the case of eggs stored for 8 to 10 days, values for this trait were higher for the dark-brown and olive-coloured eggs than for the blue-shelled eggs. The highest mean decrease of chick hatchability from fertilised eggs was observed in the case of the blue-shelled eggs (7.93% for each day). The dark-brown eggs had significantly higher (by about 22.0%) chick hatchability from fertilised eggs than the blue-shelled eggs. Moreover, the dark-brown and olive eggs, in comparison with the blue-shelled eggs, were characterised by a significantly higher hatchability after each period of storage before incubation. The highest negative trend-cycle was observed for eggs with blue shells, while the smallest--for olive-shelled eggs. Directly after laying, pheasant eggs differed with regard to the developmental advancement of the blastodermal embryo depending on eggshell colour. Longer storage time caused the numbers of blastodermal cells in eggs to decrease. The group with blue shells had a lower proportion of fertilised eggs and lower hatching results than the dark-brown eggshell group. It was also demonstrated that the value of hatchability indices decreased significantly irrespective of eggshell colour after seven days of storage prior to hatching.

Laying characteristics of one- and two-year old pheasants (Phasianus colchicus, L.).

The aim ofthe study was to assess laying traits, the weight of eggs and characters ofthe laying rhythm of pheasants in the first and second years of reproduction. Pheasants (10 cockerels and 50 hens) were kept in aviaries. Daily, individual control of laying was performed beginning with the day of the first laying and ending with the last egg. The following parameters were evaluated: age at first laying, length of the laying period, number of laid eggs and the average weight of the egg in the 8th week of laying. The laying rhythm was also assessed and comprised: the number of egg clutches, the number of eggs in a clutch, the number of eggs in the longest clutch, the number of intervals, the length of intervals and the longest interval between clutches. During the first period of reproduction, in comparison with the second, pheasants laid slightly more eggs of similar average weight. The first laying period was longer than the second and was characterised by a greater number of egg clutches and greater number of intervals between clutches. The greatest number of eggs was laid in 10-egg and longer clutches, although the l-egg clutches were the most numerous. A positive correlation was found between the number of eggs and the number of clutches, the greatest number of eggs in a clutch and the number of intervals between clutches. The similar values of the reproductive characters of one- and two-year old pheasants point to the possibility of longer utilization of these birds than only for one laying period. On the other hand, the considerable variability between the experimental hens with regard to the number and the length of egg clutches, as well as the intervals between them, indicate the possibility to carry out selection taking into account traits characterising the laying rhythm.

Analysis of the laying rhythm and reproductive traits of geese.

The aim of the performed investigations was to analyse the laying rhythm and reproductive traits of Koluda white geese from the W11 reproduction strain and to determine the heritability of these traits as well as correlations between the laying rhythm traits and reproductive traits. The total number of geese participating in the experiment included 383 one-year old layers from the control flock (the first year of reproductive utilisation). The following traits characterizing the laying rhythm were assessed individually for each layer: the number of 2 and 3-egg clutches or more, length (in days) of 2- or more egg clutches as well as the length of intervals between the laid eggs during the entire laying period. The following reproductive traits were also assessed individually for each bird: age at sexual maturity, initial number of eggs (eggs laid during the period from January, 1st to April, 30th), number of eggs during the whole laying period, laying intensity (the total number of eggs x 100/length of the laying period in days) as well as the length of the reproductive period. It was found that Koluda white geese laid most of their eggs (on average 70.2%) singly and not in clutches. With regard to egg clutches, it was found that 2-egg clutches constituted 85.3% of eggs laid in clutches. Moderate or high variability of traits associated with the laying rhythm and reproduction were demonstrated. The observed moderate heritability of the laying rhythm traits indicate that they may be utilised in the selection programs for geese. On the other hand, the reported high, positive genetic correlation coefficients between the number of egg clutches and the initial and total egg number as well as laying intensity confirm the existence of interactions between these traits. This fact may be helpful in breeding programs for determining the optimal selection systems for geese.