Documenting Community Health Worker Compensation Schemes and Their Perceived Effectiveness in Seven sub-Saharan African Countries: A Qualitative Study.

INTRODUCTION: Community health worker (CHW) incentives and remuneration are core issues affecting the performance of CHWs and health programs. There is limited documentation on the implementation details of CHW financial compensation schemes used in sub-Saharan African countries, including their mechanisms of delivery and effectiveness. We aimed to document CHW financial compensation schemes and understand CHW, government, and other stakeholder perceptions of their effectiveness. METHODS: A total of 68 semistructured interviews were conducted with a range of purposefully selected key informants in 7 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Malawi, Mali, Niger, and Zambia. Thematic analysis of coded interview data was conducted, and relevant country documentation was reviewed, including any documents referenced by key informants, to provide contextual background for qualitative interpretation. RESULTS: Key informants described compensation schemes as effective when payments are regular, distributions are consistent, and amounts are sufficient to support health worker performance and continuity of service delivery. CHW compensation schemes associated with an employed worker status and government payroll mechanisms were most often perceived as effective by stakeholders. Compensation schemes associated with a volunteer status were found to vary widely in their delivery mechanisms (e.g., cash or mobile phone distribution) and were perceived as less effective. Lessons learned in implementing CHW compensation schemes involved the need for government leadership, ministerial coordination, community engagement, partner harmonization, and realistic transitional financing plans. CONCLUSION: Policymakers should consider these findings in designing compensation schemes for CHWs engaged in routine, continuous health service delivery within the context of their country's health service delivery model. Systematic documentation of the tasks and time commitment of volunteer status CHWs could support more recognition of their health system contributions and better determination of commensurate compensation as recommended by the 2018 World Health Organization Guidelines on Health Policy and System Support to Optimize Community Health Worker Programs.

Improving Malaria Case Management and Referral Relationships at the Primary Care Level in Ghana: Evaluation of a Quality Assurance Internship.

In Ghana, Community-based Health Planning and Services (CHPS) compounds managed by trained nurses and midwives called community health officers (CHOs) play a major role in malaria service delivery. With heavy administrative burdens and minimal training in providing patient care, particularly for febrile illnesses, including malaria, CHOs struggle to comply with the World Health Organization's test, treat, and track initiative guidelines and appropriate referral practices. A clinical training and mentorship program was implemented for CHOs to prevent and manage uncomplicated malaria and offer appropriate pre-referral treatment and referrals to district hospitals. Medical officers, pharmacists, midwives, health information officers, and medical laboratory scientists at 52 district referral hospitals were trained as mentors; CHOs from 520 poorly performing CHPS compounds underwent a 5-day internship at their assigned district referral hospital to improve knowledge and clinical skills for malaria case management. Three months later, mentors conducted post-training mentoring visits to assess knowledge and skill retention and provide ongoing on-the-job guidance. Significant percentage-point increases were observed immediately post-internship for history taking (+12.0, 95% confidence interval [CI]=8.3, 15.1; P<.001); fever assessment (+24.9, 95% CI=20.9, 29.3; P<.001); severe malaria assessment and referral (+32.0, 95% CI=28.2, 35.8; P<.001); and knowledge assessment (+15.8, 95% CI=10.0, 21.3; P<.001). Three months later, a third assessment revealed these gains were largely maintained. Analysis of national health management information system data showed statistically significant improvements in testing, treatment, and referral indicators at intervention CHPS compounds after the intervention that were not observed in comparison CHPS compounds. This training and mentorship approach offers a replicable model to build primary care provider competencies in malaria prevention and management and demonstrates how developing relationships between primary care and first-level referral facilities benefits both providers and clients. More methodologically rigorous studies are needed to measure the impact of this approach.

Perspectives on Implementation Considerations and Costs of Malaria Case Management Supportive Supervision.

Between 2012 and 2017, the U.S. President's Malaria Initiative-funded MalariaCare project supported national malaria control programs in sub-Saharan Africa to implement a case management quality assurance (QA) system for malaria and other febrile illnesses. A major component of the system was outreach training and supportive supervision (OTSS), whereby trained government health personnel visited health facilities to observe health-care practices using a standard checklist, to provide individualized feedback to staff, and to develop health facility-wide action plans based on observation and review of facility registers. Based on MalariaCare's experience, facilitating visits to more than 5,600 health facilities in nine countries, we found that programs seeking to implement similar supportive supervision schemes should consider ensuring the following: 1) develop a practical checklist that balances information gathering and mentorship; 2) establish basic competency criteria for supervisors and periodically assess supervisor performance in the field; 3) conduct both technical skills training and supervision skills training; 4) establish criteria for selecting facilities to conduct OTSS and determine the appropriate frequency of visits; and 5) use electronic data collection systems where possible. Cost will also be a significant consideration: the average cost per OTSS visit ranged from $44 to $333. Significant variation in costs was due to factors such as travel time, allowances for government personnel, length of the visit, and involvement of central level officials. Because the cost of conducting supportive supervision prohibits regularly visiting all health facilities, internal QA measures could also be considered as alternative or complementary activities to supportive supervision.

Effect of Supportive Supervision on Competency of Febrile Clinical Case Management in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Since 2010, the WHO has recommended that clinical decision-making for malaria case management be performed based on the results of a parasitological test result. Between 2015 and 2017, the U.S. President's Malaria Initiative-funded MalariaCare project supported the implementation of this practice in eight sub-Saharan African countries through 5,382 outreach training and supportive supervision visits to 3,563 health facilities. During these visits, trained government supervisors used a 25-point checklist to observe clinicians' performance in outpatient departments, and then provided structured mentoring and action planning. At baseline, more than 90% of facilities demonstrated a good understanding of WHO recommendations-when tests should be ordered, using test results to develop an accurate final diagnosis, severity assessment, and providing the correct prescription. However, significant deficits were found in history taking, conducting a physical examination, and communicating with patients and their caregivers. After three visits, worker performance demonstrated steady improvement-in particular, with checking for factors associated with increased morbidity and mortality: one sign of severe malaria (72.9-85.5%), pregnancy (81.1-87.4%), and anemia (77.2-86.4%). A regression analysis predicted an overall improvement in clinical performance of 6.3% (P < 0.001) by the third visit. These findings indicate that in most health facilities, there is good baseline knowledge on the processes of quality clinical management, but further training and on-site mentoring are needed to improve the clinical interaction that focuses on second-order decision-making, such as severity of illness, management of non-malarial fever, and completing the patient-provider communication loop.

Performance of symptom-based tuberculosis screening among people living with HIV: not as great as hoped.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study was to determine the diagnostic performance of the symptom-based tuberculosis (TB) screening questionnaire recommended by WHO for people living with HIV (PLWH) in resource-limited settings, among adults off and on antiretroviral therapy (ART). DESIGN: Cross-sectional study at two HIV clinics in South Africa. METHODS: A total of 825 PLWH completed the screening questionnaire and underwent investigations [chest radiography (CXR) and microbiologic testing of sputa]. A positive screen was defined as presence of cough, fever, night sweats, or weight loss. Pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) was defined as sputum smear positive for acid-fast bacilli or growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. RESULTS: Of 737 participants with at least one diagnostic sputum specimen, PTB was diagnosed in 31 of 522 (5.9%) on ART, and 34 of 215 (15.8%) not on ART. The questionnaire missed 15 of 31 (48.4%) PTB cases on ART, and three of 34 (8.8%) not on ART. Among participants on ART, post-test probability of PTB diagnosis (95% confidence interval) was 6.8% (4.0-10.9%) if screening positive, and 5.2% (2.9-8.4%) if screening negative, whereas among participants not on ART, post-test probabilities were 20.3% (14.2-27.5%) and 4.8% (1.0-13.5%), respectively. Among participants diagnosed with PTB, those on ART were significantly less likely to screen positive (adjusted odds ratio 0.04, 95% confidence interval: 0.01-0.39). In both groups (ART and no ART), screening was more sensitive when CXR was incorporated. CONCLUSION: For case detection and exclusion of PTB, the WHO-recommended questionnaire performed adequately among PLWH not on ART, and poorly among those on ART. Further research is needed to identify feasible and effective TB screening strategies for PLWH in resource-limited settings.

Factors associated with low early uptake of a national program to prevent mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT): results of a survey of mothers and providers, Botswana, 2003.

In Francistown, Botswana, approximately 40% of pregnant women are HIV positive. PMTCT has been available since 1999, antiretroviral (ARV) therapy since 2001, and 95% of women have antenatal care (ANC) and deliver in hospital. However, in 2002, only 33% of ANC clients were tested for HIV, and not all women with HIV received services. In 2003, we conducted a survey of 504 pregnant and postpartum women to explore reasons for poor program uptake, and interviewed 82 health providers about PMTCT. Most women (95%) believed that all pregnant women should be tested for HIV. In multivariate analysis, factors associated with having an HIV test included being interviewed at an urban site, having a high PMTCT knowledge score, knowing someone receiving PMTCT or ARV therapy, and having a partner who had been tested for HIV. Neither fear of stigma nor resistance from partners were frequent reasons for refusing an HIV test. Providers of HIV services reported discomfort with their knowledge and skills, and 84% believed HIV testing should be routine. Ensuring adequate knowledge about HIV and PMTCT, creating systems whereby HIV-positive women receiving care can educate and support other women, and making HIV testing routine for pregnant women may improve the uptake of HIV testing.

Radio role models for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and HIV testing among pregnant women in Botswana.

Although Botswana supports a program for the prevention of mother-to-child-transmission of HIV (PMTCT), many women initially did not take advantage of the program. Using data from a 2003 survey of 504 pregnant and post-partum women, we assessed associations between exposure to a long-running radio serial drama that encourages use of the PMTCT program and HIV testing during pregnancy. Controlling for demographic, pregnancy and other variables, women who spontaneously named a PMTCT character in the serial drama as their favorite character were nearly twice as likely to test for HIV during pregnancy as those who did not. Additionally, multiparity, knowing a pregnant woman taking AZT, having a partner who tested, higher education and PMTCT knowledge were associated with HIV testing during pregnancy. Identification with characters in the radio serial drama is associated with testing during pregnancy. Coupled with other supporting elements, serial dramas could contribute to HIV prevention, treatment and care initiatives.

Successful introduction of routine opt-out HIV testing in antenatal care in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: Botswana has high HIV prevalence among pregnant women (37.4% in 2003) and provides free services for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV. Nearly all pregnant women (>95%) have antenatal care (ANC) and deliver in hospital. Uptake of antenatal HIV testing was low from 1999 through 2003. In 2004, Botswana's President declared that HIV testing should be "routine but not compulsory" in medical settings. METHODS: Health workers were trained to provide group education and recommend HIV testing as part of routine ANC services. Logbook data on ANC attendance, HIV testing, and uptake of PMTCT interventions were reviewed before and after routine testing training, and ANC clients were interviewed. RESULTS: After routine testing started, the percentage of all HIV-infected women delivering in the regional hospital who knew their HIV status increased from 47% to 78% and the percentage receiving PMTCT interventions increased from 29% to 56%. ANC attendance and the percentage of HIV-positive women who disclosed their HIV status to others remained stable. Interviews indicated that ANC clients supported the policy. CONCLUSIONS: Routine HIV testing was more accepted than voluntary testing in this setting and led to substantial increases in the uptake of testing and PMTCT interventions without detectable adverse consequences. Routine testing in other settings may strengthen HIV care and prevention efforts.