ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Fimoviridae 2024.

Members of the family Fimoviridae are plant viruses with a multipartite negative-sense enveloped RNA genome (-ssRNA), composed of 4-10 segments comprising 12.3-18.5 kb in total, within quasi-spherical virions. Fimoviruses are transmitted to plants by eriophyid mites and induce characteristic cytopathologies in their host plants, including double membrane-bound bodies in the cytoplasm of virus-infected cells. Most fimoviruses infect dicotyledonous plants, and many cause serious disease epidemics. This is a summary of the ICTV Report on the family Fimoviridae, which is available at ictv.global/report/fimoviridae.

PCR-based detection for the quarantine fungus Colletotrichum kahawae, a biosecurity threat to the coffee (Coffea arabica) industry worldwide.

Coffee berry disease (CBD) is caused by Colletotrichum kahawae, a quarantine fungus still absent from most coffee-producing countries. Given the potential adverse effects on coffee berry production, it is a severe worldwide threat to farmers and industry. Current biosecurity management focuses on exclusion by applying quarantine measures, including certification of coffee plants and their products. However, methods for detecting C. kahawae by the NPPO (National Plant Protection Organization) laboratories still need approval. This research aims to functionally demonstrate, standardize, and validate a method for detecting and discriminating C. kahawae from other Colletotrichum species that may be present in coffee plant samples. The method proposes to use an end-point PCR marker for the mating type gene (MAT1-2-1) and a confirmatory test with a qPCR marker developed on the glutamine synthetase (GS) gene. The C. kahawae amplicons for the Cen-CkM10 marker exhibited specific melting temperature (Tm) values that could be readily differentiated from other tested species, including their relatives. Given the fungus's quarantine status, specificity was tested using artificial mixtures of DNA of C. kahawae with other Colletotrichum species and coffee plant DNA. The described method will enable NPPOs in coffee producing and exporting countries, especially Colombia, to prevent this pathogen's entry, establishment, and spread.

In-silico prediction of RT-qPCR-high resolution melting for broad detection of emaraviruses.

Twenty-four species of RNA viruses contain members infecting economically important crops that are classified within the genus Emaravirus, family Fimoviridae. There are at least two other non-classified species that may be added. Some of these viruses are spreading rapidly and cause economically important diseases on several crops, raising a need for a sensitive diagnostic technique for taxonomic and quarantine purposes. High-resolution melting (HRM) has shown to be reliable for the detection, discrimination, and diagnosis of several diseases of plants, animals, and humans. This research aimed to explore the ability to predict HRM outputs coupled to reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). To approach this goal a pair of degenerate genus-specific primers were designed for endpoint RT-PCR and RT-qPCR-HRM and the species in the genus Emaravirus were selected to framework the development of the assays. Both nucleic acid amplification methods were able to detect in-vitro several members of seven Emaravirus species with sensitivity up to one fg of cDNA. Specific parameters for in-silico prediction of the melting temperatures of each expected emaravirus amplicon are compared to the data obtained in-vitro. A very distinct isolate of the High Plains wheat mosaic virus was also detected. The high-resolution DNA melting curves of the RT-PCR products predicted in-silico using uMeltSM allowed saving time while designing and developing the RT-qPCR-HRM assay since the approach avoided extensive searching for optimal HRM assay regions and rounds of HRM tests in-vitro for optimization. The resultant assay provides sensitive detection and reliable diagnosis for potentially any emaravirus, including new species or strains.

An elution independent collection device (EICD) for rapid collection of Anaplasma marginale DNA from blood samples.

Currently utilized molecular detection methods are based mainly on nucleic acid extraction, amplification, and detection procedures that may require costly equipment, numerous reagents, and highly trained personnel. These requirements make diagnostic tests expensive, time-consuming, and not suitable for point-of-care applications. There is an increasing demand for simple, low-cost portable technologies. To overcome these challenges, a paper-based elution independent collection device (EICD) was designed to collect microorganisms and recover nucleic acids for molecular biology applications with minimal steps. In this study, we demonstrate a simpler Anaplasma marginale detection that uses an EICD for nucleic acid collection combined with recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), and a lateral flow dipstick for detection of the specified target. A pre-lysis blood treatment was optimized that uses Triton X-100 lysis buffer and bovine serum album in wash buffer. Blood samples were incubated for 5 min at room temperature and run through the EICD. Four 1-mm diameter discs excised from EICD were used as template in basic RPA and lateral flow (nfo) (endonuclease IV) RPA assays. Each disc of soluble central membrane (SCM) carried circa 0.249 pg/µl of Anaplasma DNA. The percentage of nucleic acid recoverable from the SCM ranged between 60% - 70%. Blood samples infected with A. marginale were treated with Triton X-100 pre-lysis protocol. All samples tested positive by PCR and RPA methods. EICD-driven collection of blood samples is a practical method successfully adapted to detect Anaplasma spp. or blood-borne pathogen DNA and has potential for point-of-care detection in resource-limited settings.

Exploring in-silico prediction for the development of a RT-qPCR-high resolution melting assay for the broad detection of emaraviruses.

High-resolution melting (HRM) has shown to be reliable for the detection, discrimination, and diagnosis of several diseases of plants, animals, and humans. The aim of this research was to explore the ability to predict HRM outputs when coupled to reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). This research used the species in the Emaravirus genus as model to framework the development of genus-specific RT-qPCR-HRM assays. A pair of degenerate genus-specific primers were designed for use in endpoint RT-PCR and RT-qPCR-HRM detection of emaraviruses. Eleven species of RNA viruses infecting economically important crops are classified within the genus Emaravirus, family Fimoviridae. There are at least fifteen other non-classified species that may be added. Some of these viruses are spreading rapidly and cause economically important diseases on several crops, raising a need for a sensitive diagnostic technique for taxonomic and quarantine purposes. RT-PCR and RT-qPCR-HRM were able to detect seven emaravirus species in-vitro with sensitivity up to one fg of cDNA. Specific parameters for prediction in-silico of the melting temperatures of each expected emaravirus amplicon are provided and compared to the data obtained in-vitro. A very distinct isolate of the High Plains wheat mosaic virus was also detected. The prediction in-silico of fluorescence of high-resolution DNA melting curves of predicted RT-PCR products using uMeltSM speeded the design and development of RT-qPCR-HRM assay. This approach avoided rounds of HRM tests in-vitro when searching for the optimal regions that provides accurate diagnosis. The resultant assay provided sensitive detection and reliable diagnosis for potentially any emaravirus, including new species or strains.

Probing Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) targeting two gene-fragments of rose rosette virus.

This study explores the development of Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for detection of rose rosette virus (RRV), a technique with the potential to be translated to rose nurseries. RRV is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which is a member of the genus Emaravirus (Family Fimoviridae) and the causal agent of the rose rosette disease (RRD). Although RRV symptoms are characteristics, early visual diagnosis of RRD can be misleading and confusing since it may appear like herbicide damage. Moreover, it may take incubation time for symptoms to appear after virus infection. Two sets of RRV gene sequences RNA3 and RNA4 were analyzed and two sets of four LAMP primers were designed. The direct antigen-capture method for direct trapping of RRV in plastic was used for RNA extraction followed by cDNA synthesis. RT-LAMP reactions were for 1 hour at 64°C (RRV-P3) and 66.5°C (RRV-P4) using either a thermocycler or a portable dry bath. RT-qLAMP was also optimized using DNA polymerase GspSSD LD using the same RRV sets of primers. RRV was detected in symptomatic and non-symptomatic RRD tissue from Oklahoma. The limit of detection (LoD) was 1pg/µL and 1 fg/µL using Bst 2.0 LAMP and GspSSD LD quantitative LAMP, respectively. In visual colorimetric pre- and post-reactions, the LoD was 10 pg/µL and 0.1 pg/µL using hydroxy naphthol blue (HNB, 120 µM) and SYBR green I (1:10 dilution), respectively. No cross-reactivity was detected in the RT-LAMP reaction testing cDNAs of eight commonly co-infecting rose viruses and one virus taxonomically related to RRV. Four different dyes were tested, and visible colorimetric reactions were obtained with RT-LAMP Bst 2.0 combined with SYBR I or HNB. RT-qLAMP with GspSSD2.0 offers LoD equal to RT-PCR and it is faster since it works with RNA directly.

Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) with lateral flow detection for three Anaplasma species of importance to livestock health.

Anaplasma marginale, A. ovis, and A. phagocytophilum are the causative agents of bovine anaplasmosis, ovine anaplasmosis, and granulocytic anaplasmosis, respectively. The gold standard for diagnosis of post-acute and long-term persistent infections is the serological cELISA, which does not discriminate between Anaplasma species and requires highly equipped laboratories and trained personnel. This study addresses the development of a rapid, isothermal, sensitive, species-specific RPA assays to detect three Anaplasma species in blood and cELISA A. marginale-positive serum samples. Three RPA primer and probe sets were designed targeting msp4 genes of each Anaplasma species and the internal control (GAPDH gene) for each assay. The limit of detection of gel-based or RPA-basic assays is 8.99 × 104 copies/µl = A. marginale, 5.04 × 106 copies/µl = A. ovis, and 4.58 × 103 copies/µl = A. phagocytophilum, and for each multiplex lateral flow or RPA-nfo assays is 8.99 × 103 copies/µl of A. marginale, 5.04 × 103 copies/µl of A. ovis, 4.58 × 103 copies/µl of A. phagocytophilum, and 5.51 × 103 copies/µl of internal control (GAPDH). Although none of the 80 blood samples collected from Oklahoma cattle were positive, the RPA-nfo assays detected all A. marginale cattle blood samples with varying prevalence rates of infection, 83% of the 24 cELISA A. marginale-positive serum samples, and all A. phagocytophilum cell culture samples. Overall, although early detection of three Anaplasma species was not specifically addressed, the described RPA technique represents an improvement for detection of three Anaplasma in regions where access to laboratory equipment is limited.

Combining multiplex PCR and high-resolution melting for the detection and discrimination of arthropod transmitted viruses of cereals.

The Great Plains of the United States is a region comprised of approximately 45 million hectares of grasslands where several economically important cereal crops are grown. Arthropod-transmitted, cereal-infecting viruses vary in incidence from year-to-year and are often difficult to detect in large acreages. To facilitate the detection of economically important viruses of cereals that often exist in co-infections, a multiplex reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) platform assay was developed. This method can be used in combination with high resolution melting (HRM) to detect and allow for discrimination between three arthropod-transmitted plant viruses; Wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV), Maize mosaic virus (MMV) and Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV). Multiplex PCR in combination with HRM allowed for successful detection of WSMV, MMV, and BYDV, as well as discrimination between three BYDV species, BYDV-PAS, BYDV-PAV and BYDV-MAV. All primer pairs amplified products of the predicted size. The BYDV-RT-PCR primers amplified products of identical length for all three species of BYDV. HRM was then used to discriminate between these products by determining significant differences between the melting rates for each (p < 0.05). This study demonstrates the flexibility of combining multiplex PCR with HRM to increase the specificity of plant virus diagnostics based on the needs of the diagnostician performing the assay.

Recombinase polymerase amplification applied to plant virus detection and potential implications.

Several isothermal techniques for the detection of plant pathogens have been developed with the advent of molecular techniques. Among them, Recombinase Polymerase Amplification (RPA) is becoming an important technique for the rapid, sensitive and cost-effective detection of plant viruses. The RPA technology has the advantage to be implemented in field-based scenarios because the method requires a minimal sample preparation, and is performed at constant low temperature (37-42 °C). The RPA technique is rapidly becoming a promising tool for use in rapid detection and further diagnostics in plant clinics and monitoring quarantine services. This paper presents a review of studies conducted using RPA for detection/diagnosis of plant viruses with either DNA genomes (Banana bunchy top virus, Bean golden yellow mosaic virus, Tomato mottle virus, Tomato yellow leaf curl virus) or RNA genomes (Little Cherry virus 2, Plum pox virus and Rose rosette virus).

Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for rapid screening of ticks and fleas for spotted fever group rickettsia.

BACKGROUND: The importance of tick and flea-borne rickettsia infections is increasingly recognized worldwide. While increased focus has shifted in recent years to the development of point-of-care diagnostics for various vector-borne diseases in humans and animals, little research effort has been devoted to their integration into vector surveillance and control programs, particularly in resource-challenged countries. One technology which may be helpful for large scale vector surveillance initiatives is loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). The aim of this study was to develop a LAMP assay to detect spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsia DNA from field-collected ticks and fleas and compare with published end-point PCR results. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A Spotted Fever Group rickettsia-specific loop-mediated isothermal amplification (SFGR-LAMP) assay was developed using primers based on a region of the R. rickettsii 17kDa protein gene. The sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility of the assay were evaluated. The assay was then compared with the results of end-point PCR assays for pooled tick and flea samples obtained from field-based surveillance studies. The sensitivity of the SFGR-LAMP assay was 0.00001 ng/µl (25µl volume) which was 10 times more sensitive than the 17kDa protein gene end-point PCR used as the reference method. The assay only recognized gDNA from SFG and transitional group (TRG) rickettsia species tested but did not detect gDNA from typhus group (TG) rickettsia species or closely or distantly related bacterial species. The SFGR-LAMP assay detected the same positives from a set of pooled tick and flea samples detected by end-point PCR in addition to two pooled flea samples not detected by end-point PCR. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: To our knowledge, this is the first study to develop a functional LAMP assay to initially screen for SFG and TRG rickettsia pathogens in field-collected ticks and fleas. With a high sensitivity and specificity, the results indicate the potential use as a field-based surveillance tool for tick and flea-borne rickettsial pathogens in resource-challenged countries.

A field based detection method for Rose rosette virus using isothermal probe-based Reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification assay.

Rose rosette disease, caused by Rose rosette virus (RRV; genus Emaravirus) is a major threat to the rose industry in the U.S. The only strategy currently available for disease management is early detection and eradication of the infected plants, thereby limiting its potential spread. Current RT-PCR based diagnostic methods for RRV are time consuming and are inconsistent in detecting the virus from symptomatic plants. Real-time RT-qPCR assay is highly sensitive for detection of RRV, but it is expensive and requires well-equipped laboratories. Both the RT-PCR and RT-qPCR cannot be used in a field-based testing for RRV. Hence a novel probe based, isothermal reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-exoRPA) assay, using primer/probe designed based on the nucleocapsid gene of the RRV has been developed. The assay is highly specific and did not give a positive reaction to other viruses infecting roses belonging to both inclusive and exclusive genus. Dilution assays using the in vitro transcript showed that the primer/probe set is highly sensitive, with a detection limit of 1 fg/µl. In addition, a rapid technique for the extraction of viral RNA (<5min) has been standardized from RRV infected tissue sources, using PBS-T buffer (pH 7.4), which facilitates the virus adsorption onto the PCR tubes at 4°C for 2min, followed by denaturation to release the RNA. RT-exoRPA analysis of the infected plants using the primer/probe indicated that the virus could be detected from leaves, stems, petals, pollen, primary roots and secondary roots. In addition, the assay was efficiently used in the diagnosis of RRV from different rose varieties, collected from different states in the U.S. The entire process, including the extraction can be completed in 25min, with less sophisticated equipments. The developed assay can be used with high efficiency in large scale field testing for rapid detection of RRV in commercial nurseries and landscapes.

A rapid assay for detection of Rose rosette virus using reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification using multiple gene targets.

Rose rosette disease caused by Rose rosette virus (RRV; genus Emaravirus) is the most economically relevant disease of Knock Out® series roses in the U.S. As there are no effective chemical control options for the disease, the most critical disease management strategies include the use of virus free clean plants for propagation and early detection and destruction of infected plants. The current diagnostic techniques for RRV including end-point reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) are highly sensitive, but limited to diagnostic labs with the equipment and expertise; and is time consuming. To address this limitation, an isothermal reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA) assay based on multiple gene targets for specific detection of RRV was developed. The assay is highly specific and did not cross react with other viruses belonging to the inclusive and exclusive genus. Dilution assays using the in vitro transcripts showed that the primer sets designed (RPA-267, RPA-131, and RPA-321) are highly sensitive, consistently detecting RRV with a detection limit of 1fg/µL. Testing of the infected plants using the primer sets indicated that the virus could be detected from leaves, stems and petals of roses. The primer pair RPA-267 produced 100% positive detection of the virus from infected leaf tissues, while primer set RPA-131 produced 100% detection from stems and petals. The primer set RPA-321 produced 83%, 87.5% and 75% positive detection from leaves, petals and stem tissues, respectively. In addition, the assay has been efficiently used in the detection of RRV infecting Knock Out® roses, collected from different states in the U.S. The assay can be completed in 20min as compared to the end-point RT-PCR assay (3-4h) and RT-qPCR (1.5h). The RT-RPA assay is reliable, rapid, highly sensitive, and can be easily used in diagnostic laboratories for detection of RRV with no need for any special equipment.

Development of a rapid, sensitive TaqMan real-time RT-PCR assay for the detection of Rose rosette virus using multiple gene targets.

Rose rosette virus (RRV), belonging to the genus Emaravirus, is a highly destructive pathogen that causes rose rosette disease. The disease is a major concern for the rose industry in the U.S. due to the lack of highly sensitive methods for early detection of RRV. This is critical, as early identification of the infected plants and eradication is necessary in minimizing the risks associated with the spread of the disease. A highly reliable, specific and sensitive detection assay is thus required to test and confirm the presence of RRV in suspected plant samples. In this study a TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay was developed for the detection of RRV from infected roses, utilizing multiple gene targets. Four pairs of primers and probes; two of them (RRV_2-1 and RRV_2-2) based on the consensus sequences of the glycoprotein gene (RNA2) and the other two (RRV_3-2 and RRV_3-5) based on the nucleocapsid gene (RNA3) were designed. The specificity of the primers and probes was evaluated against other representative viruses infecting roses, belonging to the genera Alfamovirus, Cucumovirus, Ilarvirus, Nepovirus, Tobamovirus, and Tospovirus and one Emaravirus (Wheat mosaic virus). Dilution assays using the in vitro transcripts (spiked with total RNA from healthy plants, and non-spiked) showed that all the primers and probes are highly sensitive in consistently detecting RRV with a detection limit of 1 fg. Testing of the infected plants over a period of time (three times in monthly intervals) indicated high reproducibility, with the primer/probe RRV_3-5 showing 100% positive detection, while RRV_2-1, RRV_2-2 and RRV_3-2 showed 90% positive detection. The developed real-time RT-PCR assay is reliable, highly sensitive, and can be easily used in diagnostic laboratories for testing and confirmation of RRV.

A simplified strategy for sensitive detection of Rose rosette virus compatible with three RT-PCR chemistries.

Rose rosette disease is a disorder associated with infection by Rose rosette virus (RRV), a pathogen of roses that causes devastating effects on most garden cultivated varieties, and the wild invasive rose especially Rosa multiflora. Reliable and sensitive detection of this disease in early phases is needed to implement proper control measures. This study assesses a single primer-set based detection method for RRV and demonstrates its application in three different chemistries: Endpoint RT-PCR, TaqMan-quantitative RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) and SYBR Green RT-qPCR with High Resolution Melting analyses. A primer set (RRV2F/2R) was designed from consensus sequences of the nucleocapsid protein gene p3 located in the RNA 3 region of RRV. The specificity of primer set RRV2F/2R was validated in silico against published GenBank sequences and in-vitro against infected plant samples and an exclusivity panel of near-neighbor and other viruses that commonly infect Rosa spp. The developed assay is sensitive with a detection limit of 1fg from infected plant tissue. Thirty rose samples from 8 different states of the United States were tested using the developed methods. The developed methods are sensitive and reliable, and can be used by diagnostic laboratories for routine testing and disease management decisions.

Array of Synthetic Oligonucleotides to Generate Unique Multi-Target Artificial Positive Controls and Molecular Probe-Based Discrimination of Liposcelis Species.

Several species of the genus Liposcelis are common insect pests that cause serious qualitative and quantitative losses to various stored grains and processed grain products. They also can contaminate foods, transmit pathogenic microorganisms and cause allergies in humans. The common occurrence of multi-species infestations and the fact that it is difficult to identify and discriminate Liposcelis spp. make accurate, rapid detection and discriminatory tools absolutely necessary for confirmation of their identity. In this study, PCR primers and probes specific to different Liposcelis spp. were designed based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1) gene. Primer sets ObsCo13F/13R, PeaCo15F/14R, BosCO7F/7R, BruCo5F/5R, and DecCo11F/11R were used to specifically detect Liposcelis obscura Broadhead, Liposcelis pearmani Lienhard, Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel, Liposcelis brunnea Motschulsky and Liposcelis decolor (Pearman) in multiplex endpoint PCRs, which amplified products of 438-, 351-, 191-, 140-, and 87-bp, respectively. In multiplex TaqMan qPCR assays, orange, yellow, red, crimson and green channels corresponding to reporter dyes 6-ROXN, HEX, Cy5, Quasar705 and 6-FAM specifically detected L. obscura, L. brunnea, L. bostrychophila, L. pearmani and L. decolor, respectively. All developed primer and probe sets allowed specific amplification of corresponding targeted Liposcelis species. The development of multiplex endpoint PCR and multiplex TaqMan qPCR will greatly facilitate psocid identification and their management. The use of APCs will streamline and standardize PCR assays. APC will also provide the opportunity to have all positive controls in a single tube, which reduces maintenance cost and labor, but increases the accuracy and reliability of the assays. These novel methods from our study will have applications in pest management, biosecurity, quarantine, food safety, and routine diagnostics.

Phylodynamic evidence of the migration of turnip mosaic potyvirus from Europe to Australia and New Zealand.

Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) is a potyvirus that is transmitted by aphids and infects a wide range of plant species. We investigated the evolution of this pathogen by collecting 32 isolates of TuMV, mostly from Brassicaceae plants, in Australia and New Zealand. We performed a variety of sequence-based phylogenetic and population genetic analyses of the complete genomic sequences and of three non-recombinogenic regions of those sequences. The substitution rates, divergence times and phylogeographical patterns of the virus populations were estimated. Six inter- and seven intralineage recombination-type patterns were found in the genomes of the Australian and New Zealand isolates, and all were novel. Only one recombination-type pattern has been found in both countries. The Australian and New Zealand populations were genetically different, and were different from the European and Asian populations. Our Bayesian coalescent analyses, based on a combination of novel and published sequence data from three non-recombinogenic protein-encoding regions, showed that TuMV probably started to migrate from Europe to Australia and New Zealand more than 80 years ago, and that distinct populations arose as a result of evolutionary drivers such as recombination. The basal-B2 subpopulation in Australia and New Zealand seems to be older than those of the world-B2 and -B3 populations. To our knowledge, our study presents the first population genetic analysis of TuMV in Australia and New Zealand. We have shown that the time of migration of TuMV correlates well with the establishment of agriculture and migration of Europeans to these countries.

A multi-target, non-infectious and clonable artificial positive control for routine PCR-based assays.

Positive controls are essential for PCR reliability and are challenging to obtain for rare, exotic and/or emerging pathogens and pose biosafety risks if manufactured using infectious pathogens. Custom synthetic DNA inserts can be designed de novo in tandems of forward and reverse complement priming sequences to be inserted in circular plasmid vectors. To test this concept, artificial positive controls (APCs) for use in PCR were synthesized to contain primer sequences targeting four viruses (Barley yellow dwarf virus, Soilborne wheat mosaic virus, Triticum mosaic virus and Wheat streak mosaic virus) pathogenic to wheat and, as internal control, the plant mitochondrial nad5 gene. Thermodynamics and folding parameters of twenty-four APC inserts were assessed in silico. Two thermodynamically different APCs, designated optimal and sub-optimal, were cloned and tested using end point PCR. The optimal APC had a 100% amplification rate, while only 92% of virus-infected plant tissues, commonly used as reference positive controls, amplified. An array of APC priming sequences from different organisms and/or previously tested primers can be accommodated in a large and flexible number of positive control targets. APCs will streamline and standardize routine PCR, improve reliability and biosafety, and create opportunities for development and commercialization of new synthetic positive control sequences.