Beyond 2D: A scalable and highly sensitive method for a comprehensive 3D analysis of kidney biopsy tissue.

The spatial organization of various cell populations is critical for the major physiological and pathological processes in the kidneys. Most evaluation of these processes typically comes from a conventional 2D tissue cross-section, visualizing a limited amount of cell organization. Therefore, the 2D analysis of kidney biopsy introduces selection bias. The 2D analysis potentially omits key pathological findings outside a 1- to 10-µm thin-sectioned area and lacks information on tissue organization, especially in a particular irregular structure such as crescentic glomeruli. In this study, we introduce an easy-to-use and scalable method for obtaining high-quality images of molecules of interest in a large tissue volume, enabling a comprehensive evaluation of the 3D organization and cellular composition of kidney tissue, especially the glomerular structure. We show that CUBIC and ScaleS clearing protocols could allow a 3D analysis of the kidney tissues in human and animal models of kidney disease. We also demonstrate that the paraffin-embedded human biopsy specimens previously examined via 2D evaluation could be applicable to 3D analysis, showing a potential utilization of this method in kidney biopsy tissue collected in the past. In summary, the 3D analysis of kidney biopsy provides a more comprehensive analysis and a minimized selection bias than 2D tissue analysis. Additionally, this method enables a quantitative evaluation of particular kidney structures and their surrounding tissues, with the potential utilization from basic science investigation to applied diagnostics in nephrology.

Lack of Cathepsin D in the central nervous system results in microglia and astrocyte activation and the accumulation of proteinopathy-related proteins.

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is one of many neurodegenerative storage diseases characterized by excessive accumulation of lipofuscins. CLN10 disease, an early infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, is associated with a gene that encodes cathepsin D (CtsD), one of the major lysosomal proteases. Whole body CtsD-knockout mice show neurodegenerative phenotypes with the accumulation of lipofuscins in the brain and also show defects in other tissues including intestinal necrosis. To clarify the precise role of CtsD in the central nervous system (CNS), we generated a CNS-specific CtsD-knockout mouse (CtsD-CKO). CtsD-CKO mice were born normally but developed seizures and their growth stunted at around postnatal day 23 ± 1. CtsD-CKO did not exhibit apparent intestinal symptoms as those observed in whole body knockout. Histologically, autofluorescent materials were detected in several areas of the CtsD-CKO mouse's brain, including: thalamus, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. Expression of ubiquitin and autophagy-associated proteins was also increased, suggesting that the autophagy-lysosome system was impaired. Microglia and astrocytes were activated in the CtsD-CKO thalamus, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), an inflammation marker, was increased in the microglia. Interestingly, deposits of proteinopathy-related proteins, phosphorylated α-synuclein, and Tau protein were also increased in the thalamus of CtsD-CKO infant mice. Considering these results, we propose thatt the CtsD-CKO mouse is a useful mouse model to investigate the contribution of cathepsin D to the early phases of neurodegenerative diseases in relation to lipofuscins, proteinopathy-related proteins and activation of microglia and astrocytes.

Membranous Structures Directly Come in Contact With p62/SQSTM1 Bodies.

During autophagy, autophagosomes are formed to engulf cytoplasmic contents. p62/SQSTM-1 is an autophagic adaptor protein that forms p62 bodies. A unique feature of p62 bodies is that they seem to directly associate with membranous structures. We first investigated the co-localization of mKate2-p62 bodies with phospholipids using click chemistry with propargyl-choline. Propargyl-choline-labeled phospholipids were detected inside the mKate2-p62 bodies, suggesting that phospholipids were present inside the bodies. To clarify whether or not p62 bodies come in contact with membranous structures directly, we investigated the ultrastructures of p62 bodies using in-resin correlative light and electron microscopy of the Epon-embedded cells expressing mKate2-p62. Fluorescent-positive p62 bodies were detected as uniformly lightly osmificated structures by electron microscopy. Membranous structures were detected on and inside the p62 bodies. In addition, multimembranous structures with rough endoplasmic reticulum-like structures that resembled autophagosomes directly came in contact with amorphous-shaped p62 bodies. These results suggested that p62 bodies are unique structures that can come in contact with membranous structures directly.

Impairment of Proteasome Function in Podocytes Leads to CKD.

BACKGROUND: The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and the autophagy-lysosomal system (APLS) are major intracellular degradation procedures. The importance of the APLS in podocytes is established, but the role of the UPS is not well understood. METHODS: To investigate the role of the UPS in podocytes, mice were generated that had deletion of Rpt3 (Rpt3pdKO), which encodes an essential regulatory subunit required for construction of the 26S proteasome and its deubiquitinating function. RESULTS: Rpt3pdKO mice showed albuminuria and glomerulosclerosis, leading to CKD. Impairment of proteasome function caused accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and of oxidative modified proteins, and it induced podocyte apoptosis. Although impairment of proteasome function normally induces autophagic activity, the number of autophagosomes was lower in podocytes of Rpt3pdKO mice than in control mice, suggesting the autophagic activity was suppressed in podocytes with impairment of proteasome function. In an in vitro study, antioxidant apocynin and autophagy activator rapamycin suppressed podocyte apoptosis induced by proteasome inhibition. Moreover, rapamycin ameliorated the glomerular injury in the Rpt3pdKO mice. The accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and of oxidative modified proteins, which were detected in the podocytes of Rpt3pdKO mice, is a characteristic feature of aging. An aging marker was increased in the podocytes of Rpt3pdKO mice, suggesting that impairment of proteasome function promoted signs of aging in podocytes. CONCLUSIONS: Impairment of proteasome function in podocytes led to CKD, and antioxidants and autophagy activators can be therapeutic agents for age-dependent CKD.

Two-color in-resin CLEM of Epon-embedded cells using osmium resistant green and red fluorescent proteins.

In-resin CLEM of Epon embedded samples can greatly simplify the correlation of fluorescent images with electron micrographs. The usefulness of this technique is limited at present by the low number of fluorescent proteins that resist CLEM processing. Additionally, no study has reported the possibility of two-color in-resin CLEM of Epon embedded cells. In this study, we screened for monomeric green and red fluorescent proteins that resist CLEM processing. We identified mWasabi, CoGFP variant 0, and mCherry2; two green and one red fluorescent proteins as alternatives for in-resin CLEM. We expressed mitochondria-localized mCherry2 and histone H2B tagged with CoGFP variant 0 in cells. Green and red fluorescence was detected in 100 nm-thin sections of the Epon-embedded cells. In the same thin sections, we correlated the fluorescent signals to mitochondria and the nucleus using a scanning electron microscope. Similar results were obtained when endoplasmic reticulum-localized mCherry2 and histone H2B tagged with CoGFP variant 0 were expressed in the cells. Two-color in-resin CLEM of two cytoplasmic organelles, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, was also achieved using mitochondria-localized mCherry2 and endoplasmic reticulum-localized mWasabi. In summary, we report three new fluorescent protein-alternatives suitable for in-resin CLEM of Epon-embedded samples, and achieved Epon-based two-color in-resin CLEM.

Visualization of cytoplasmic organelles via in-resin CLEM using an osmium-resistant far-red protein.

Post-fixation with osmium tetroxide staining and the embedding of Epon are robust and essential treatments that are used to preserve and visualize intracellular membranous structures during electron microscopic analyses. These treatments, however, can significantly diminish the fluorescent intensity of most fluorescent proteins in cells, which creates an obstacle for the in-resin correlative light-electron microscopy (CLEM) of Epon-embedded cells. In this study, we used a far-red fluorescent protein that retains fluorescence after osmium staining and Epon embedding to perform an in-resin CLEM of Epon-embedded samples. The fluorescence of this protein was detected in 100 nm thin sections of the cells in Epon-embedded samples after fixation with 2.5% glutaraldehyde and post-fixation with 1% osmium tetroxide. We performed in-resin CLEM of the mitochondria in Epon-embedded cells using a mitochondria-localized fluorescent protein. Using this protein, we achieved in-resin CLEM of the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum in thin sections of the cells in Epon-embedded samples. To our knowledge, this is the first reported use of a far-red fluorescent protein retains its fluorescence after osmium staining and Epon-embedding, and it represents the first achievement of in-resin CLEM of both the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum in Epon-embedded samples.

Characterization of starvation-induced autophagy in cerebellar Purkinje cells of pHluorin-mKate2-human LC3B transgenic mice.

We generated a new transgenic mouse model that expresses a pHluorin-mKate2 fluorescent protein fused with human LC3B (PK-LC3 mice) for monitoring autophagy activity in neurons of the central nervous system. Histological analysis revealed fluorescent puncta in neurons of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellar Purkinje cells, and anterior spinal regions. Using CLEM analysis, we confirmed that PK-LC3-positive puncta in the perikarya of Purkinje cells correspond to autophagic structures. To validate the usability of PK-LC3 mice, we quantified PK-LC3 puncta in Purkinje cells of mice kept in normal feeding conditions and of mice starved for 24 hours. Our results showed a significant increase in autophagosome number and in individual puncta areal size following starvation. To confirm these results, we used morphometry at the electron microscopic level to analyze the volume densities of autophagosomes and lysosomes/autolysosomes in Purkinje cells of PK-LC3 mice. The results revealed that the volume densities of autophagic structures increase significantly after starvation. Together, our data show that PK-LC3 mice are suitable for monitoring autophagy flux in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, and potentially other areas in the central nervous system.

Autophagy Deficiency in Renal Proximal Tubular Cells Leads to an Increase in Cellular Injury and Apoptosis under Normal Fed Conditions.

Renal proximal tubular epithelial cells are significantly damaged during acute kidney injury. Renal proximal tubular cell-specific autophagy-deficient mice show increased sensitivity against renal injury, while showing few pathological defects under normal fed conditions. Considering that autophagy protects the proximal tubular cells from acute renal injury, it is reasonable to assume that autophagy contributes to the maintenance of renal tubular cells under normal fed conditions. To clarify this possibility, we generated a knock out mouse model which lacks Atg7, a key autophagosome forming enzyme, in renal proximal tubular cells (Atg7flox/flox;KAP-Cre+). Analysis of renal tissue from two months old Atg7flox/flox;KAP-Cre+ mouse revealed an accumulation of LC3, binding protein p62/sequestosome 1 (a selective substrate for autophagy), and more interestingly, Kim-1, a biomarker for early kidney injury, in the renal proximal tubular cells under normal fed conditions. TUNEL (TdT-mediated dUTP Nick End Labeling)-positive cells were also detected in the autophagy-deficient renal tubular cells. Analysis of renal tissue from Atg7flox/flox;KAP-Cre+ mice at different age points showed that tubular cells positive for p62 and Kim-1 continually increase in number in an age-dependent manner. Ultrastructural analysis of tubular cells from Atg7flox/flox;KAP-Cre+ revealed the presence of intracellular inclusions and abnormal structures. These results indicated that autophagy-deficiency in the renal proximal epithelial tubular cells leads to an increase in injured cells in the kidney even under normal fed conditions.

Lack of Cathepsin D in the Renal Proximal Tubular Cells Resulted in Increased Sensitivity against Renal Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury.

Cathepsin D is one of the major lysosomal aspartic proteases that is essential for the normal functioning of the autophagy-lysosomal system. In the kidney, cathepsin D is enriched in renal proximal tubular epithelial cells, and its levels increase during acute kidney injury. To investigate how cathepsin D-deficiency impacts renal proximal tubular cells, we employed a conditional knockout CtsDflox/-; Spink3Cre mouse. Immunohistochemical analyses using anti-cathepsin D antibody revealed that cathepsin D was significantly decreased in tubular epithelial cells of the cortico-medullary region, mainly in renal proximal tubular cells of this mouse. Cathepsin D-deficient renal proximal tubular cells showed an increase of microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3; a marker for autophagosome/autolysosome)-signals and an accumulation of abnormal autophagic structures. Renal ischemia/reperfusion injury resulted in an increase of early kidney injury marker, Kidney injury molecule 1 (Kim-1), in the cathepsin D-deficient renal tubular epithelial cells of the CtsDflox/-; Spink3Cre mouse. Inflammation marker was also increased in the cortico-medullary region of the CtsDflox/-; Spink3Cre mouse. Our results indicated that lack of cathepsin D in the renal tubular epithelial cells led to an increase of sensitivity against ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Glomerulosclerosis Induced by Deficiency of Membrane-Associated Guanylate Kinase Inverted 2 in Kidney Podocytes.

Membrane-associated guanylate kinase inverted 2 (MAGI-2) is a component of the slit diaphragm (SD) of glomerular podocytes. Here, we investigated the podocyte-specific function of MAGI-2 using newly generated podocyte-specific MAGI-2-knockout (MAGI-2-KO) mice. Compared with podocytes from wild-type mice, podocytes from MAGI-2-KO mice exhibited SD disruption, morphologic abnormalities of foot processes, and podocyte apoptosis leading to podocyte loss. These pathologic changes manifested as massive albuminuria by 8 weeks of age and glomerulosclerosis and significantly higher plasma creatinine levels at 12 weeks of age; all MAGI-2-KO mice died by 20 weeks of age. Loss of MAGI-2 in podocytes associated with decreased expression and nuclear translocation of dendrin, which is also a component of the SD complex. Dendrin translocates from the SD to the nucleus of injured podocytes, promoting apoptosis. Our coimmunoprecipitation and in vitro reconstitution studies showed that dendrin is phosphorylated by Fyn and dephosphorylated by PTP1B, and that Fyn-induced phosphorylation prevents Nedd4-2-mediated ubiquitination of dendrin. Under physiologic conditions in vivo, phosphorylated dendrin localized at the SDs; in the absence of MAGI-2, dephosphorylated dendrin accumulated in the nucleus. Furthermore, induction of experimental GN in rats led to the downregulation of MAGI-2 expression and the nuclear accumulation of dendrin in podocytes. In summary, MAGI-2 and Fyn protect dendrin from Nedd4-2-mediated ubiquitination and from nuclear translocation, thereby maintaining the physiologic homeostasis of podocytes, and the lack of MAGI-2 in podocytes results in FSGS.

Sorting Nexin 9 facilitates podocin endocytosis in the injured podocyte.

The irreversibility of glomerulosclerotic changes depends on the degree of podocyte injury. We have previously demonstrated the endocytic translocation of podocin to the subcellular area in severely injured podocytes and found that this process is the primary disease trigger. Here we identified the protein sorting nexin 9 (SNX9) as a novel facilitator of podocin endocytosis in a yeast two-hybrid analysis. SNX9 is involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, actin rearrangement and vesicle transport regulation. Our results revealed and confirmed that SNX9 interacts with podocin exclusively through the Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs (BAR) domain of SNX9. Immunofluorescence staining revealed the expression of SNX9 in response to podocyte adriamycin-induced injury both in vitro and in vivo. Finally, an analysis of human glomerular disease biopsy samples demonstrated strong SNX9 expression and co-localization with podocin in samples representative of severe podocyte injury, such as IgA nephropathy with poor prognosis, membranous nephropathy and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. In conclusion, we identified SNX9 as a facilitator of podocin endocytosis in severe podocyte injury and demonstrated the expression of SNX9 in the podocytes of both nephropathy model mice and human patients with irreversible glomerular disease.

The geographical distribution of fly larvae on corpses in Saitama Prefecture in Japan during the summer season.

Identification of fly larvae species may offer valuable information as to the location, or the environment in which corpses were placed, but only if the geographical distribution of larva species is clarified. In this study, we investigated a total of 126 larvae on 42 corpses found in Saitama Prefecture in Japan between July and September. We identified the larva species by analyzing the sequences of mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase gene subunit I. Our results revealed that larvae belonged to 6 different species: Lucilia sericata and Chrysomya pinguis from the Calliphoridae family, and Parasarcophaga crassipalpis, Boettcherisca peregrina, Parasarcophaga harpax, and Parasarcophaga dux from the Sarcophagidae family. Additionally, we investigated if there was a correlation between larvae species and population density. Based on the random sampling and the statistical analysis on the entire larva collection, larvae of Chrysomya pinguis species were more likely to be found in low population density areas, whereas larvae of Lucilia sericata were commonly found in high population density areas. The accumulation of distribution data of larvae may be useful to confirm the environment around the place where corpses were found.

The role of Notch signaling in kidney podocytes.

The Notch signaling pathway is a basic cell-to-cell communication mechanism. This pathway is activated by the interaction between Notch receptors and the ligands of adjacent cells. Once activated, Notch receptors are cleaved and the intracellular domains translocate into the nucleus, where the transcription of target genes starts. In the mammalian kidney, Notch receptors are activated during nephrogenesis. Afterwards, in the mature glomeruli, the Notch pathway becomes silent. However, many researchers have reported the activation of Notch receptors in mature podocytes under pathological conditions. In this review, we discuss the role of Notch signaling in podocytes.

Cathepsin D in Podocytes Is Important in the Pathogenesis of Proteinuria and CKD.

Studies have revealed many analogies between podocytes and neurons, and these analogies may be key to elucidating the pathogenesis of podocyte injury. Cathepsin D (CD) is a representative aspartic proteinase in lysosomes. Central nervous system neurons in CD-deficient mice exhibit a form of lysosomal storage disease with a phenotype resembling neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses. In the kidney, the role of CD in podocytes has not been fully explored. Herein, we generated podocyte-specific CD-knockout mice that developed proteinuria at 5 months of age and ESRD by 20-22 months of age. Immunohistochemical analysis of these mice showed apoptotic podocyte death followed by proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis with aging. Using electron microscopy, we identified, in podocytes, granular osmiophilic deposits (GRODs), autophagosome/autolysosome-like bodies, and fingerprint profiles, typical hallmarks of CD-deficient neurons. CD deficiency in podocytes also led to the cessation of autolysosomal degradation and accumulation of proteins indicative of autophagy impairment and the mitochondrial ATP synthase subunit c accumulation in the GRODs, again similar to changes reported in CD-deficient neurons. Furthermore, both podocin and nephrin, two essential components of the slit diaphragm, translocated to Rab7- and lysosome-associated membrane glycoprotein 1-positive amphisomes/autolysosomes that accumulated in podocyte cell bodies in podocyte-specific CD-knockout mice. We hypothesize that defective lysosomal activity resulting in foot process effacement caused this accumulation of podocin and nephrin. Overall, our results suggest that loss of CD in podocytes causes autophagy impairment, triggering the accumulation of toxic subunit c-positive lipofuscins as well as slit diaphragm proteins followed by apoptotic cell death.

Podocyte-specific deletion of Rac1 leads to aggravation of renal injury in STZ-induced diabetic mice.

Rac1, a GTPase of the Rho subfamily, has a crucial role in cytoskeletal architecture, as well as the regulation of cell migration and growth. However, renal injury in mice with podocyte-specific deletion of Rac1 has yet to be elucidated fully due to conflicting findings. Herein, we identified a possible role for Rac1 in podocytes of streptozotocin- (STZ) induced diabetic mice. The urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) in the knockout (KO) group was significantly higher than that in the wild type (WT) group at any week of age. A more marked ACR increase was observed in STZ/KO group than STZ/WT group, although ACR did increase with weeks of age in both diabetic groups. The kidney sections from diabetic mice revealed a glomerular hypertrophy with mesangial expansion, but there was no appreciable difference in glomerular findings under a light microscope between STZ/WT and STZ/KO mice. However, an electron microscopy analysis revealed that regardless of the presence or absence of diabetes, both KO (KO and STZ/KO) groups had a higher rate of foot process effacement compared with both WT (WT and STZ/WT) groups. The expression levels of the slit diaphragm protein, podocin, was reduced with the induction of diabetes, and the levels in the STZ/KO group experienced a further reduction compared with the STZ/WT group. The number of WT1-positive cells in the STZ/KO group was more significantly decreased than that in the other three groups. In contrast, the numbers of cleaved caspase 3- and TUNEL-positive cells in the glomeruli of the STZ/KO group were more increased than those in the STZ/WT group. Thus, this study provides evidence that podocyte-specific deletion of Rac1 results in morphological alteration in podocytes, and that the induction of apoptosis or decreased expression of the slit diaphragm proteins by hyperglycemic stimuli are associated with the progression of diabetic nephropathy.

Podocin is translocated to cytoplasm in puromycin aminonucleoside nephrosis rats and in poor-prognosis patients with IgA nephropathy.

Podocytes serve as the final barrier to urinary protein loss through a highly specialized structure called a slit membrane and maintain foot process and glomerular basement membranes. Podocyte injury results in progressive glomerular damage and accelerates sclerotic changes, although the exact mechanism of podocyte injury is still obscure. We focus on the staining gap (podocin gap) defined as the staining difference between podocin and synaptopodin, which are normally located in the foot process. In puromycin aminonucleoside nephrosis rats, the podocin gap is significantly increased (p < 0.05) and podocin is translocated to the cytoplasm on days 7 and 14 but not on day 28. Surprisingly, the gap is also significantly increased (p < 0.05) in human kidney biopsy specimens of poor-prognosis IgA nephropathy patients. This suggests that the podocin gap could be a useful marker for classifying the prognosis of IgA nephropathy and indicating the translocation of podocin to the cytoplasm. Next, we find more evidence of podocin trafficking in podocytes where podocin merges with Rab5 in puromycin aminonucleoside nephrosis rats at day 14. In immunoelectron microscopy, the podocin positive area was significantly translocated from the foot process areas to the cytoplasm (p< 0.05) on days 7 and 14 in puromycin aminonucleoside nephrosis rats. Interestingly, podocin is also translocated to the cytoplasm in poor-prognosis human IgA nephropathy. In this paper, we demonstrate that the translocation of podocin by endocytosis could be a key traffic event of critical podocyte injury and that the podocin gap could indicate the prognosis of IgA nephropathy.

The significant role of autophagy in the granular layer in normal skin differentiation and hair growth.

As a major intracellular degradation system, autophagy contributes to the maintenance of skin keratinocyte homeostasis. However, the precise role of autophagy in skin differentiation has not been fully investigated. To clarify whether autophagy plays a role in skin differentiation and maturation, autophagy-related gene 7 (Atg7)-deficient mice were generated. Atg7-deficient mice cannot survive for more than 24 h after birth. Therefore, the skins of Atg7-deficient mice and wild-type mice (as a control) were grafted onto severe combined immunodeficient mice. The resulting morphological and pathological changes were monitored for 28 days. Histopathological examination revealed acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, and abnormal hair growth in the skin grafts from the Atg7-deficient mice. Immune-density analysis of the skin grafts revealed reduced immunostaining of keratinization-related proteins, including loricrin, filaggrin, and involucrin, in the skin grafts from the Atg7-deficient mice. Furthermore, quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot analyses revealed the reduced expression of these three keratinization-related proteins in the skin grafts from the Atg7-deficient mice. Morphometric analysis using electron microscopy further revealed a reduction in the number and diameter of the keratohyalin and trichohyalin granules in these skin grafts. The differences were maintained for at least 1 month after transplantation. These results show that autophagy has a significant role in epidermal keratinization and hair growth until a certain stage of maturation.

A treadmill exercise reactivates the signaling of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTor) in the skeletal muscles of starved mice.

It has been well established that a starvation-induced decrease in insulin/IGF-I and serum amino acids effectively suppresses the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTor) signaling to induce autophagy, which is a major degradative cellular pathway in skeletal muscles. In this study, we investigated the systematic effects of exercise on the mTor signaling of skeletal muscles. Wild type C57BL/6J mice were starved for 24h under synchronous autophagy induction conditions. Under these conditions, endogenous LC3-II increased, while both S6-kinse and S6 ribosomal protein were dephosphorylated in the skeletal muscles, which indicated mTor inactivation. Using GFP-LC3 transgenic mice, it was also confirmed that fluorescent GFP-LC3 dots in the skeletal muscles increased, including soleus, plantaris, and gastrocnemius, which clearly showed autophagosomal induction. These starved mice were then subjected to a single bout of running on a treadmill (12m/min, 2h, with a lean of 10 degrees). Surprisingly, biochemical analyses revealed that the exercise elicited a decrease in the LC3-II/LC3-I ratio as well as an inversion from the dephosphorylated state to the rephosphorylated state of S6-kinase and ribosomal S6 in these skeletal muscles. Consistently, the GFP-LC3 dots of the skeletal muscles were diminished immediately after the exercise. These results indicated that exercise suppressed starvation-induced autophagy through a reactivation of mTor signaling in the skeletal muscles of these starved mice.

Significance of urinary full-length megalin in patients with IgA nephropathy.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Megalin is highly expressed at the apical membranes of proximal tubular epithelial cells. A urinary full-length megalin (C-megalin) assay is linked to the severity of diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetes. This study examined the relationship between levels of urinary C-megalin and histological findings in adult patients with IgA nephropathy (IgAN). DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: Urine samples voided in the morning on the day of renal biopsy were obtained from 73 patients with IgAN (29 men and 44 women; mean age, 33 years) and 5 patients with membranous nephropathy (MN). Renal pathologic variables were analyzed using the Oxford classification of IgAN, the Shigematsu classification and the Clinical Guidelines of IgAN in Japan. The levels of urinary C-megalin were measured by sandwich ELISA. RESULTS: Histological analysis based on the Oxford classification revealed that the levels of urinary C-megalin were correlated with mesangial hypercellularity in IgAN patients (OR = 1.76, 95% CI: 1.04-3.27, P<0.05). There was a significant correlation between the levels of urinary C-megalin and the severity of chronic extracapillary abnormalities according to the Shigematsu classification in IgAN patients (ß = 0.33, P = 0.008). The levels of urinary C-megalin were significantly higher in all risk levels of IgAN patients requiring dialysis using the Clinical Guidelines of IgAN in Japan than in the control group. The levels of urinary C-megalin were significantly higher in the high risk and very high risk grades than in the low risk grade (P<0.05). The levels of urinary C-megalin were significantly higher in MN patients compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The levels of urinary C-megalin are associated with histological abnormalities in adult IgAN patients. There is a possibility that urinary C-megalin is an independent predictor of disease progression of IgAN. In addition, our results suggest that urinary C-megalin is a marker of glomerular abnormalities in various glomerular diseases as well as IgAN.

Transient increase in proteinuria, poly-ubiquitylated proteins and ER stress markers in podocyte-specific autophagy-deficient mice following unilateral nephrectomy.

Previous studies have revealed that podocytes normally can be associated with a very high degree of autophagic activity, and that a lack of autophagic activity in podocytes is associated with susceptibility to disease and to late-onset glomerulosclerosis. In the present study, we conducted unilateral nephrectomy as a surgical model for acute nephron reduction. First, using GFP-LC3 transgenic mice to monitor autophagy, we found that glomerular autophagy could be transiently suppressed by surgery, but that it was restored quickly. To further explore the significance of podocyte autophagy after unilateral nephrectomy, we investigated podocyte-specific Atg7-deficient mice. The knockout mice exhibited no pathological phenotype compared with wild-type mice before nephrectomy. However, 1 day after nephrectomy, significantly higher levels of proteinuria and ultrastructural changes that included foot process effacement and a significant reduction in podocyte number were detected in mice harboring Atg7-deficient podocytes. Moreover, biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses showed a robust increase in polyubiquitin levels and ER stress markers in the glomeruli of the mice with autophagy-deficient podocytes. These results show the importance of the autophagic process in podocytes for maintaining a normal degree of filtration function during the adaptation to compensatory kidney hypertrophy following unilateral nephrectomy.