The relationship of alliance, cohesion, and climate with outcome among college counseling populations.

It is not yet fully understood how alliance, cohesion, and climate differentially correlate with client outcome in group therapy, especially when assessed simultaneously. This study aims to elucidate these relationships through an archival analysis of continuous Group Questionnaire (GQ) and Outcome Questionnaire-45 (OQ-45) data from 412 group therapy clients at college counseling centers, which were originally collected by Burlingame, Whitcomb, et al. (2018). We predicted that alliance, cohesion, and climate would each correlate with improvements in outcome and, further, that they would have similar relationships with change in outcome. Results indicate that greater alliance, cohesion, and climate are individually associated with lower distress. This relationship was significant regarding session-to-session fluctuations on individual client scores (p < .01), as well as regarding differences between clients in their personal averages across sessions (p < .01). However, when linear growth trajectories were considered, only alliance was significantly associated with improvement (p < .05). In other words, alliance, climate, and cohesion all correlate with outcome when time is ignored; however, alliance alone significantly correlates with outcome when change over time is taken into account. This study highlights the importance of the client-therapist relationship, emphasizing how alliance is significantly related to change in group therapy. Thus, therapists should prioritize a strong bond with clients. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental genetic contributions to neonatal temperament in a nonhuman primate (Macaca mulatta) model.

Temperament is an individual's nature and is widely believed to have a heritable foundation. Few studies, however, have evaluated paternal and maternal contributions to the triadic dimensions of temperament. Rhesus monkeys are widely utilized to model genetic contributions to human development due to their close genetic-relatedness and common temperament structure, providing a powerful translational model for investigating paternal and maternal genetic influences on temperament. The temperament of rhesus monkey infants born to 19 different sires and 50 different dams was assessed during the first month of life by comparing the temperament of paternal or maternal half-siblings reared with their mothers in species-normative conditions or reared in a neonatal nursery. Factor scores from three dimensions of temperament were obtained (Orienting/Regulation, Negative Affectivity, and Surgency/Extraversion) and ANOVAs were used to assess genetic effects. For paternal half-siblings, results showed a statistically significant paternal contribution to Orienting/Regulation, Negative Affectivity, and Surgency/Extraversion factor scores. For maternal half-siblings, results showed a statistically significant contribution to Orienting/Regulation factor scores. When parsed by early rearing condition, results showed a paternal contribution Orienting/Regulation, Negative Affectivity, and Surgency/Extraversion scores for paternal half-siblings reared in the neonatal nursery, while there was only a paternal contribution to Surgency/Extraversion for paternal half-siblings reared by their mothers. There was only a maternal contribution to Orienting/Regulation for maternal half-siblings reared by their mothers. These results show that paternal and maternal contributions to temperament vary by environmental context, and that mothers may environmentally buffer their infants from paternal contributions to their temperament.

Using generalizability theory and the ERP Reliability Analysis (ERA) Toolbox for assessing test-retest reliability of ERP scores part 1: Algorithms, framework, and implementation.

The reliability of event-related brain potential (ERP) scores depends on study context and how those scores will be used, and reliability must be routinely evaluated. Many factors can influence ERP score reliability; generalizability (G) theory provides a multifaceted approach to estimating the internal consistency and temporal stability of scores that is well suited for ERPs. G theory's approach possesses a number of advantages over classical test theory that make it ideal for pinpointing sources of error in observed scores. The current primer outlines the G-theory approach to estimating internal consistency (coefficients of equivalence) and test-retest reliability (coefficients of stability). This approach is used to evaluate the reliability of ERP measurements. The primer outlines how to estimate reliability coefficients that consider the impact of the number of trials, events, occasions, and groups. The uses of two different G-theory reliability coefficients (i.e., generalizability and dependability) in ERP research are elaborated, and a dataset from the companion manuscript, which examines N2 amplitudes to Go/NoGo stimuli, is used as an example of the application of these coefficients to ERPs. The developed algorithms are implemented in the ERP Reliability Analysis (ERA) Toolbox, which is open-source software designed for estimating score reliability using G theory. The toolbox facilitates the application of G theory in an effort to simplify the study-by-study evaluation of ERP score reliability. The formulas provided in this primer should enable researchers to pinpoint the sources of measurement error in ERP scores from multiple recording sessions and subsequently plan studies that optimize score reliability.

Multi-group multi-time point confirmatory factor analysis of the triadic structure of temperament: A nonhuman primate model.

Attempts to describe the latent structure of human infant temperament have led some to suggest the existence of three major dimensions. An earlier exploratory factor analysis (EFA) supported a triadic structure of temperament in week-old rhesus monkey infants, paralleling the structure in human infants. This study sought to confirm the latent triadic structure of temperament across the first month of life in a larger sample of rhesus monkey infants (N = 668), reared by their mothers or in a neonatal nursery. A weekly behavioral assessment was obtained during the first month of life using a subset of items from the widely utilized Infant Behavioral Assessment Scale (IBAS), an instrument designed to measure temperament in infant monkeys. Using the latent constructs proposed by the earlier EFA (Orienting/Regulation, Negative Affectivity, Surgency/Extraversion), multi-group, multi-time point confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to confirm the latent temperament structure across rearing groups at each time point (weeks 1-4). Results confirm and extend those of the earlier EFA: latent Orienting/Regulation,  Negative Affectivity, and Surgency/Extraversion constructs were present across the rearing groups at each time point, with the IBAS items consistently loading onto the latent factors to a similar degree across rearing groups at each time point. These findings suggest foundational evolutionary roots for the triadic structure of human infant temperament, but that its behavioral manifestations vary across maturation and rearing condition. Similarities in latent temperament structure in humans and a representative nonhuman primate highlights the potential for utilizing translational nonhuman primate models to increase understanding of human temperament.

Measuring the Multidimensional Construct of Pornography: A Long and Short Version of the Pornography Usage Measure.

With the increase in the availability and usage of pornography, the research on the effects of pornography has also increased. This research has uncovered several controversies in the field regarding how pornography usage influences attitudes, sexual behaviors, and relationships. However, many of the measures of pornography are problematic as there is often little reliability and validity information for them and it is not clear that participants in these research studies are referring to the same types of materials when they answer pornography usage questions. Consequently, many of the research findings are suspect and it is crucial to develop reliable and valid scales to measure general pornography usage. In this study, we present both a 20-item and a 7-item version of the Pornography Usage Measure (PUM) that is based on extensive previous research on what types of materials individuals consider pornographic and that indicates pornography is a multidimensional construct. We evaluated the reliability and validity of both versions by using an MTurk sample of 934 males and 705 females (N =1639 total) to conduct confirmatory factor analyses, item response analyses, and structural equation model analyses. These analyses demonstrated that there were adequate reliability and early evidence for content, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity for both versions of the PUM. This measure could improve the quality of future research on pornography by providing more consistency between different studies about what is being measured when individuals indicate their pornography usage patterns.

Longitudinal effects of maternal love withdrawal and guilt induction on Chinese American preschoolers' bullying aggressive behavior.

Bullying has been understudied among preschool children, especially those from Chinese American families. Previous research has also neglected the dimensional effects of psychological control on child bullying development. This study examined two psychological control dimensions, love withdrawal and guilt induction, and their effects on children's bullying aggressive behavior using a longitudinal design. Participants were first-generation Chinese American mothers (N = 133; mean age [Mage] = 37.82) and their preschool children (Mage = 4.48). Chinese immigrant mothers reported their psychologically controlling parenting and teachers rated children's bullying aggressive behaviors in the school setting. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to establish the psychometric properties and cross-wave measurement equivalence of the study constructs. Cross-lagged structural equation modeling analysis indicated that maternal love withdrawal prospectively predicted more bullying aggressive behavior, whereas guilt induction predicted less bullying aggressive behavior in children 6 months later. These results held after controlling for the initial level of children's problem behaviors and demographic variables (child age, gender, and maternal education). For child effects, child bullying aggressive behavior predicted more maternal guilt induction over time but not love withdrawal. Our findings highlight the importance of construct specificity and cultural context in understanding associations between parenting and child development.

Developing a therapeutic relationship monitoring system for group treatment.

The use of outcome monitoring systems to identify clients that are at-risk for treatment failure has now become part of daily clinical practice, shown in >25 empirical studies to improve client outcomes. These promising findings have led to outcome monitoring systems being recognized as evidence-based. Feedback systems based on client perception of therapeutic processes are recent additions to the monitoring literature, and the research suggests that these too lead to improved outcomes. Unfortunately, feedback systems and research have been primarily limited to individual therapy, creating a knowledge gap for multiperson treatment. This study reports on the development of a therapeutic relationship monitoring system for group treatment using results from 6 Group Questionnaire (GQ) studies conducted in 4 unique clinical populations: nonclinical process, counseling center, European inpatient, and seriously mentally ill inpatients. The GQ is a factor-analytically derived scale, which assesses a client's perception of 3 relationship quality constructs (positive bond, positive work, and negative relationship) across 3 structural domains (member-member, member-leader, and member-group). The first goal of the present study was to replicate the previously established factor structure across each clinical population. The second goal was to establish normative values and relevant feedback alerts for the GQ subscales in each population. Findings support the GQ factor structure across clinical populations, indicating that the constructs measured by the GQ bear similar relationships in each population. Further, findings support the implementation of unique norms and feedback alerts in each clinical population, reflecting the reality of meaningful differences between clinical populations. (PsycINFO Database Record

The effects of relationship and progress feedback in group psychotherapy using the Group Questionnaire and Outcome Questionnaire-45: A randomized clinical trial.

Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) systems that identify clients at-risk for treatment failure using outcome and therapeutic process measures are a recognized evidence-based practice. However, only 3 empirical studies have tested ROMs in group therapy, producing mixed results. This randomized clinical trial tested the Outcome Questionnaire System, the ROM system with the most empirical support for individual therapy patients, with 430 group therapy patients who were randomly assigned to 2 experimental arms (Group Questionnaire [GQ] + Outcome Questionnaire-45 [OQ-45] vs. OQ-45). Given the strong evidence for progress feedback, the primary purpose of this study was to ascertain if therapeutic relationship feedback using the GQ reduced rates of relationship deterioration and failure when progress feedback was held constant. Group leaders simultaneously ran pairs of groups that were randomly assigned to the 2 conditions. Of the 430 patients enrolled in 58 groups, 374 attended more than 4 sessions. Results showed that therapeutic relationship predicted improvement in outcome and that feedback reversed the course of relationship deterioration and reduced rates of relationship failure. Although there were no effects on attendance and dropout for feedback, the 2 experimental arms produced mixed results for the OQ-45 not-on-track cases. The combined relationship and progress feedback (GQ/OQ-45) was associated with fewer outcome deterioration cases, while the progress feedback condition (OQ-45) showed higher outcome improvement cases. Findings are discussed with respect to previous group ROM studies, clinical implications, and future research. (PsycINFO Database Record

Children's hostile intent attributions and emotional distress: What do parents perceive?

Traditionally, assessments of social information processing and associated emotional distress have used children's self-reports. We posit that additional informants, such as parents, may help illuminate the association between these variables and aggression. Our sample was composed of 222 dual-parent families of fourth-grade children (103 boys; 119 girls). Children responded to instrumental and relational provocations and their parents read the same scenarios and responded the way they believed their child would. Peer nominations provided aggression scores. We explored how means differed by provocation type (relational vs. instrumental), informant (mother, father, and child), and gender of child. The results also suggest that parent perceptions may effectively predict children's participation in relational and physical aggression, above and beyond the child's self-reports.

Evaluating the Dimensionality of Pornography.

Pornography may be a construct with a single trait or one with many traits. Research in the past was inconsistent in this regard with most researchers assuming that pornography was unidimensional (with one single trait of pornography). However, the considerable amounts of residual variation found in these studies beyond that explained by the single trait hints at what might be a multidimensional construct (with multiple traits such as sensitization and differentiation). Consequently, in this study, we intended to address the question of whether pornography consisted of a single trait or if it was multidimensional. Using MTurk, 2173 participants from the United States and the Commonwealth of Nations (in which pornography is not strictly illegal) were recruited and asked to rate how pornographic they thought a list of different depictions were. The data were analyzed utilizing the cross-validation procedure in which two subsamples were created from the main sample and one was used to establish the model building and the other to validate the model. Various models, including first-order and higher-order exploratory and confirmatory factor models, were tested. Results indicated that a bi-factor (multidimensional) model generated the best model fit, and that it was most appropriate to consider pornography multidimensional. The final model contained two dimensions ("Sensitization" and "Differentiation"). While sensitization revealed the participants' general tendency to rate all items to be more or less pornographic, differentiation revealed the participants' tendency to differentiate highly pornographic items from less pornographic items. Based on the findings of this study, we suggest that future research on the usage and effects of pornography be conducted while taking into consideration the multidimensional nature of pornography.

Long-term exposure to political violence: The particular injury of persistent humiliation.

This study assessed the association between exposure to political violence over a 25-year period and adult functioning among a population that has experienced protracted and severe political conflict. Instead of aggregating exposure to political violence across time and type of exposure, as is commonly done, the event history calendar pioneered in this study assessed exposure to five forms of political violence annually from 1987 to 2011 in a representative sample of 1788 adults, aged 37 on average, in the occupied Palestinian territories (West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip). This method allowed for the identification of trajectories of exposure to political violence from childhood to adulthood using latent profile analysis. We then correlated the trajectories of exposure to measures of economic, political, community, family, psychological, and health functioning. As expected, being shot at, having one's home raided, being hit or kicked, being verbally abused, and witnessing someone close being humiliated were all elevated during periods of heightened political conflict (the first intifada (1987-1993) and, less so, the second intifada (2000-2005)). In addition, 12% of women and men reported high and persistent levels of exposure to humiliation (being verbally abused and/or witnessing someone close being humiliated) across the entire 25-year period. These individuals lived predominantly in neighborhoods with a high Israeli military presence. Compared to those who experienced periodic exposure to political violence, persistently humiliated men and women reported significantly lower health, economic, political, and psychological functioning, as well as higher social cohesion and political expression. Relevant literatures are reviewed when concluding that persistent humiliation is a neglected form of political violence that is best represented as a direct (versus structural), acute (versus chronic), macro (versus micro), and high-grade (versus low-grade) stressor whose particular injury is due to the violation of individual and collective identity, rights, justice and dignity.

Moral Identity and Adolescent Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviors: Interactions with Moral Disengagement and Self-regulation.

Moral identity has been positively linked to prosocial behaviors and negatively linked to antisocial behaviors; but, the processes by which it is linked to such outcomes are unclear. The purpose of the present study was to examine moral identity not only as a predictor, but also as a moderator of relationships between other predictors (moral disengagement and self-regulation) and youth outcomes (prosocial and antisocial behaviors). The sample consisted of 384 adolescents (42 % female), ages 15-18 recruited from across the US using an online survey panel. Latent variables were created for moral identity, moral disengagement, and self-regulation. Structural equation models assessed these latent variables, and interactions of moral identity with moral disengagement and self-regulation, as predictors of prosocial (charity and civic engagement) and antisocial (aggression and rule breaking) behaviors. None of the interactions were significant predicting prosocial behaviors. For antisocial behaviors, the interaction between moral identity and moral disengagement predicted aggression, while the interaction between moral identity and self-regulation was significant in predicting aggression and rule breaking. Specifically, at higher levels of moral identity, the positive link between moral disengagement and aggression was weaker, and the negative link between self-regulation and both antisocial behaviors was weaker. Thus, moral identity may buffer against the maladaptive effects of high moral disengagement and low self-regulation.

Parenting, relational aggression, and borderline personality features: associations over time in a Russian longitudinal sample.

Crick, Murray-Close, and Woods (2005) encouraged the study of relational aggression as a developmental precursor to borderline personality features in children and adolescents. A longitudinal study is needed to more fully explore this association, to contrast potential associations with physical aggression, and to assess generalizability across various cultural contexts. In addition, parenting is of particular interest in the prediction of aggression or borderline personality disorder. Early aggression and parenting experiences may differ in their long-term prediction of aggression or borderline features, which may have important implications for early intervention. The currrent study incorporated a longitudinal sample of preschool children (84 boys, 84 girls) living in intact, two-parent biological households in Voronezh, Russia. Teachers provided ratings of children's relational and physical aggression in preschool. Mothers and fathers also self-reported their engagement in authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and psychological controlling forms of parenting with their preschooler. A decade later, 70.8% of the original child participants consented to a follow-up study in which they completed self-reports of relational and physical aggression and borderline personality features. The multivariate results of this study showed that preschool relational aggression in girls predicted adolescent relational aggression. Preschool aversive parenting (i.e., authoritarian, permissive, and psychologically controlling forms) significantly predicted aggression and borderline features in adolescent females. For adolescent males, preschool authoritative parenting served as a protective factor against aggression and borderline features, whereas authoritarian parenting was a risk factor for later aggression.

Moral identity as moral ideal self: links to adolescent outcomes.

The purposes of this study were to conceptualize moral identity as moral ideal self, to develop a measure of this construct, to test for age and gender differences, to examine links between moral ideal self and adolescent outcomes, and to assess purpose and social responsibility as mediators of the relations between moral ideal self and outcomes. Data came from a local school sample (Data Set 1: N = 510 adolescents; 10-18 years of age) and a national online sample (Data Set 2: N = 383 adolescents; 15-18 years of age) of adolescents and their parents. All outcome measures were parent-report (Data Set 1: altruism, moral personality, aggression, and cheating; Data Set 2: environmentalism, school engagement, internalizing, and externalizing), whereas other variables were adolescent-report. The 20-item Moral Ideal Self Scale showed good reliability, factor structure, and validity. Structural equation models demonstrated that, even after accounting for moral identity internalization, in Data Set 1 moral ideal self positively predicted altruism and moral personality and negatively predicted aggression, whereas in Data Set 2 moral ideal self positively predicted environmentalism and negatively predicted internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Further, purpose and social responsibility mediated most relations between moral ideal self and the outcomes in Data Set 2. Moral ideal self was unrelated to age but differentially predicted some outcomes across age. Girls had higher levels of moral ideal self than boys, although moral identity did not differentially predict outcomes between genders. Thus, moral ideal self is a salient element of moral identity and may play a role in morally relevant adolescent outcomes.

Adolescent-parent attachment as a mediator of relations between parenting and adolescent social behavior and wellbeing in China.

The purpose of this study was to examine links between parenting dimensions (authoritative parenting, psychological control, and parental authority) and adolescent wellbeing (self-esteem, autonomy, and peer attachments) as mediated by parent-teen attachment, among Chinese families. The sample included 298 Chinese adolescents, ages 15-18 years (M(age) = 16.36, SD = .68; 60% female). The mediation model was examined using path analyses (one model with parental authority as overprotection, and one with it as perceived behavioral control). To improve model fit a direct path was added from authoritative parenting to autonomy. Authoritative parenting was positively predictive of attachment, while psychological control and overprotection (but not behavioral control) were negative predictors. In turn, adolescent-parent attachment was positively related to the three outcomes. Lastly, the model paths did not differ by adolescent gender. These findings suggest that parenting behaviors may play a crucial role in adolescent social behaviors and wellbeing via adolescent-parent attachment.

Feeling disrespected by parents: refining the measurement and understanding of psychological control.

This study investigated parental psychological control of adolescents when construed as disrespect of individuality. First, 120 adolescents from 5 cultures were interviewed and asked to identify specific parental behaviors that communicated to them that they were disrespected as individuals. The interview data were coded and 8 new survey items were constructed to reflect key content. These items were then administered to 2100 adolescents in the same cultures along with a traditional measure of psychological control (PCS). Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that model fit was better when the two scales were kept separate, across culture and sex of parent. In structural equation models, the new scale - labeled Psychological Control - Disrespect - accounted for all and more of the variance in youth depression and antisocial behavior than the PCS did. The discussion centers on the validation the study makes of the construct and offers several suggestions for future research.

Media depictions of physical and relational aggression: connections with aggression in young adults' romantic relationships.

Various studies have found that viewing physical or relational aggression in the media can impact subsequent engagement in aggressive behavior. However, this has rarely been examined in the context of relationships. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to examine the connection between viewing various types of aggression in the media and perpetration of aggression against a romantic partner. A total of 369 young adults completed a variety of questionnaires asking for their perpetration of various forms of relationship aggression. Participants' exposure to both physical and relational aggression in the media was also assessed. As a whole, we found a relationship between viewing aggression in the media and perpetration of aggression; however, this depended on the sex of the participant and the type of aggression measured. Specifically, exposure to physical violence in the media was related to engagement in physical aggression against their partner only for men. However, exposure to relational aggression in the media was related to romantic relational aggression for both men and women.

Unpacking trauma exposure risk factors and differential pathways of influence: predicting postwar mental distress in Bosnian adolescents.

Methods are needed for quantifying the potency and differential effects of risk factors to identify at-risk groups for theory building and intervention. Traditional methods for constructing war exposure measures are poorly suited to "unpack" differential relations between specific types of exposure and specific outcomes. This study of 881 Bosnian adolescents compared both common factor-effect indicator (using exploratory factor analysis) versus composite causal-indicator methods for "unpacking" dimensions of war exposure and their respective paths to postwar adjustment outcomes. The composite method better supported theory building and most intervention applications, showing how multitiered interventions can enhance treatment effectiveness and efficiency in war settings. Used together, the methods may unpack the elements and differential effects of "caravans" of risk and promotive factors that co-occur across development.

Rates of change in naturalistic psychotherapy: contrasting dose-effect and good-enough level models of change.

Most research on the dose-effect model of change has combined data across patients who vary in their total dose of treatment and has implicitly assumed that the rate of change during therapy is constant across doses. In contrast, the good-enough level model predicts that rate of change will be related to total dose of therapy. In this study, the authors evaluated these competing predictions by examining the relationship between rate of change and total dose in 4,676 psychotherapy patients who received individual psychotherapy. Patients attended 6.46 sessions on average (SD = 4.14, range = 3-29, Mdn = 5). The results indicated that although patients improved during treatment, patients' rate of change varied as a function of total dose of treatment. Small doses of treatment were related to relatively fast rates of change, whereas large doses of treatment were related to slower rates of change. Total dose had a nonlinear relationship with the likelihood of clinically significant change. Given the variability in rates of change, it appears that time limits for treatment uniform to all patients would not adequately serve patients' needs.