Country of origin effects in explaining motivations for COVID-19 vaccine acceptance: A cognitive-affective-norm approach.

This study aims to broaden the understanding of the motivational factors influencing vaccine acceptance framed as product country image (PCI) by exploring the role of overall country image (OCI), vaccine knowledge and information inconsistency, in addition to the three most commonly investigated constructs: vaccine efficacy, fear of vaccine and social norm. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed online to 593 Vietnamese participants to collect data on COVID-19 vaccines from four different countries: the USA, the UK, Russia and China. Structural equation modelling was employed to test the proposed model and hypotheses. The results indicated that OCI had a positive effect on vaccine acceptance for vaccines from the USA and Russia, but a non-significant effect for vaccines from the UK and a negative effect for vaccines from China. Vaccine efficacy, social norm and subjective knowledge had a positive effect for most vaccines, while fear of the vaccine and information inconsistency had negative effects for certain vaccines. The results suggest that vaccine efficacy and social norm are more stable and significant predictors of vaccine acceptance than other constructs. Moreover, OCI moderated the effects of vaccine efficacy, fear of the vaccine, information inconsistency, subjective knowledge and social norm on vaccine acceptance for certain vaccines.

Comparing time focus with time importance for measuring future time perspectives in the context of pro-environmental values and outcomes.

Introduction: In the area of environmental psychology, time and the temporal perspective have often been used as an overarching framework to explain or predict environmental outcomes. This study aims to introduce a new Time Importance Scale (TIS) based on the attitude strength theory and to assess its nomological validity in comparison with the more established Temporal Focus Scale (TFS) in the context of consumers' willingness to pay more for environmentally friendly products. The new TIS scale is short and simple to manage. Method: The study proposes competing plausible structural models testing alternative relationships between future time perspective (FTP) and environmental values using a nationwide representative survey sample of 633 Norwegians. Results: The results confirm the convergent and discriminant validity of the new TIS scale. However, the direct association between the TIS scale and willingness to pay for environmentally friendly products is weak or non-significant depending on the alternative models used to validate the nomological validity. Discussion: The new TIS scale provides evidence of a possible causal chain, FTP → environmental values → willingness to pay, with strong associations between the present TIS and hedonic values and between the future TIS and biospheric values. Environmental values are activated by FTP. In most cases, the new TIS outperforms the established TFS in nomological validity. Future research should validate our findings in experimental trials to demonstrate more substantial causal relationships.

Individual differences in functional food consumption: The role of time perspective and the Big Five personality traits.

Prior research suggests inconsistent relationships between individuals' personality traits, time perspective, and specific behavior. In a large representative sample of Norwegian consumers (N = 810), we investigated the relationships between the Big Five personality traits, domain-specific consideration of future consequences (CFC), and consumption of functional foods. Structural equation modeling was employed to test the hypothesized associations. Both CFC-Future and CFC-Immediate were positively related to the consumption of functional foods, whereas personality traits exerted no direct influence on consumption. Several significant associations between personality traits and CFC-Future and CFC-Immediate were found, and three of the five personality traits-Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism-exerted indirect effects on consumption frequency via CFC-Future. Results support an integrative and hierarchical understanding of how personality traits and time perspective interact in explaining variation in functional food consumption. The findings support the notion that (domain-specific) CFC is better conceptualized as two distinct-albeit related constructs-that are shaped, in part, by broader personality traits.

Consumers' evaluation and intention to buy traditional seafood: The role of vintage, uniqueness, nostalgia and involvement in luxury.

This study extends the understanding of the relationship between consumer motivation, involvement and evaluation of traditional food products (TFP). One important research issue was to explore whether consumers' perceived uniqueness could be one important quality or value that theoretically and empirically could differentiate TFP from ordinary, usual and "everyday" traditional food. A central location test of two different vintages (maturation times) of salt-cured clipfish in combination with a survey to assess individual motivational constructs was used to test the conceptual model. Our expectations were confirmed. Perceived uniqueness influences future intention to consume and is motivated by involvement in TFP. The theoretical arguments of the relevance of the perceived uniqueness of traditional food was also supported by the positive relationship between general involvement in luxury (prestige) and involvement in TFP. In addition, this study found a significant positive relationship between product-specific nostalgia and involvement in TFP. To our knowledge, no previous study we are aware has discussed, designed or tested these theoretical relationships. Our findings have promising implications for the seafood industry in order to achieve unique product value and increase consumers' willingness to pay, by promoting uniqueness, prestige and nostalgic product features of vintage salt-cured clipfish.

Consideration of immediate and future consequences, perceived change in the future self, and health behavior.

The present study investigated the link between consideration of immediate and future consequences (CFC-I and CFC-F), and perceived change in the future self (PCFS) to healthy and unhealthy behaviors. Furthermore, we explored the moderation effect of PCFS on the relationship between CFC-I and CFC-F and health behaviors. We observed that CFC-I was linked to unhealthy behaviors, whereas CFC-F was associated with healthy behaviors. PCFS had a direct negative effect on healthy behaviors, and as a moderator, it strengthened the positive effect of CFC-I and dampened the negative effect of CFC-F on unhealthy behaviors. Implications for health communication are discussed.

Present and future temporal profiles and their relationship to health intentions and behaviors: A test on a Norwegian general population sample.

We investigated the temporal profiles of a Norwegian general population sample and their relation to health behaviors and intentions. The profiles were based on variables from the present and future dimensions of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale (CFCS), and the combination of both scales. The analysis revealed that there were only two stable clusters that corresponded to the present and the future profiles. Generally, CFCS-based present and future profiles were more effective at predicting health behaviors and intentions than ZTPI-based profiles. Profiles based on the CFCS variables were more predictive of eating behaviors. However, the profiles based on the combination of both CFCS and ZTPI were more predictive of smoking, exercising, and health intentions than the profiles based solely on the CFCS. The variation in walking was explained only by the profiles based on a combination of CFCS and ZTPI.

Time perspectives and convenience food consumption among teenagers in Vietnam: The dual role of hedonic and healthy eating values.

This study uses the subscales of Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) to explore the effects of future (CFC-future) and immediate (CFC-immediate) on convenience food consumption among teenagers in Vietnam. Furthermore, we investigate the mediating and dual role of hedonic and healthy eating values in the relationships between CFCs and convenience food consumption. Survey data from 451 teenagers in Central Vietnam and structural equation modelling were used to test the relationships in a proposed theoretical model. The results indicate that while CFC-immediate and hedonic eating value has a positive direct effect, CFC-future and healthy eating value has a negative direct effect on convenience food consumption. The findings also reveal that both CFC-immediate and CFC-future have positive effects on hedonic and healthy eating values. However, this study argues and tests the relative importance of the direct (asymmetric) effects of time perspectives on eating values, and finds that while CFC-future dominate in explaining healthy eating values, CFC-immediate dominate in explaining hedonic eating values.

Attribute importance segmentation of Norwegian seafood consumers: The inclusion of salient packaging attributes.

The main purpose of this study is to identify consumer segments based on the importance of product attributes when buying seafood for homemade meals on weekdays. There is a particular focus on the relative importance of the packaging attributes of fresh seafood. The results are based on a representative survey of 840 Norwegian consumers between 18 and 80 years of age. This study found that taste, freshness, nutritional value and naturalness are the most important attributes for the home consumption of seafood. Except for the high importance of information about expiration date, most other packaging attributes have only medium importance. Three consumer segments are identified based on the importance of 33 attributes associated with seafood: Perfectionists, Quality Conscious and Careless Consumers. The Quality Conscious consumers feel more self-confident in their evaluation of quality, and are less concerned with packaging, branding, convenience and emotional benefits compared to the Perfectionists. Careless Consumers are important as regular consumers of convenient and pre-packed seafood products and value recipe information on the packaging. The seafood industry may use the results provided in this study to strengthen their positioning of seafood across three different consumer segments.

Conscientiousness and (un)healthy eating: the role of impulsive eating and age in the consumption of daily main meals.

The present study aims to explore the relationship between conscientiousness and the consumption of healthy versus unhealthy main meals. Impulsive eating was tested as a mediator in this relationship, as well as direct effects of age on those constructs. A nationwide representative sample of 1,006 Norwegian adults (18-70 years) within a prospective design was used to test a theoretical model. The structural equation model (SEM), in combination with bootstrapping procedures in AMOS, was the principal analytical method. Conscientiousness was negatively associated with unhealthy and impulsive eating. Impulsive eating was a partial mediator between conscientiousness and unhealthy eating and a full mediator between conscientiousness and healthy eating. Age was positively correlated with conscientiousness and this relationship had an inverted U-shape form. Finally, age was negatively associated with unhealthy and impulsive eating, and positively associated with healthy eating. This study confirmed the relevance of conscientiousness for healthy, unhealthy, and impulsive eating.

The role of family communication and parents' feeding practices in children's food preferences.

This study used Family Communication Patterns Theory (FCPT) to explore how family-dinner-related communication takes place and how parents' feeding practices may be associated with children's preferences for dinner meals. The sample consisted of 12 dyads with seven- and eight-year-old Norwegian children and their parents. In-depth photo interviews were used for collecting data. Interview transcripts and photographs were examined through content analysis. Results indicated that most families were conversation oriented, and communication tended to shift from consensual during weekdays to pluralistic at weekends. On weekdays, the dinner menu was often a compromise between children's preferences and parents' intentions to provide quick, healthy dinner options for the family. To a greater extent at weekends, children were allowed to choose dinner alternatives for the entire family. Restriction of unhealthy dinner alternatives was the practice most used to control children's diets and, in fact, might explain children's high preferences for unhealthy dinner alternatives. Results underline the importance of giving children control of what they eat and being responsive to children's preferences while guiding them towards healthy dinner alternatives rather than using force and restriction. From a more theoretical perspective, this study explored how FCPT could be combined with theories about parents' feeding practices to understand meal preferences and choices among young children and their families, and how time and situation (context) influence families' communication patterns and feeding practices in their homes.

Reflective and impulsive influences on unhealthy snacking. The moderating effects of food related self-control.

This study proposes that snacking behaviour may be either reflective and deliberate or impulsive, thus following a dual-process account. We hypothesised that chronic individual differences in food related self-control would moderate the relationships between reflective and impulsive processes. The reflective route was represented by an attitude toward unhealthy snacking, while the impulsive route was represented by the tendency to buy snack on impulse. A web survey was conducted with 207 students and employees at a Norwegian university, and a moderated hierarchical regression analysis using structural equation modelling was used to estimate the theoretical model. The findings showed that both attitudes towards unhealthy snacking and impulsive snack buying tendency were positively related to snack consumption. Food related self-control moderated the relation between attitude and behaviour, as well as the relation between impulsive snack buying tendency and behaviour. The effect of attitude on consumption was relatively strong when food related self-control was strong, while the effect of impulsive snack buying on consumption was relatively strong when food related self-control was weak. The results thus suggest that while weak self-control exposes individuals vulnerable to impulsive tendencies, strong self-control does not necessarily lead to less unhealthy snacking, but this depends on the valence of an individual's attitude.

Co-production and time use. Influence on product evaluation.

This study analyses how time use influences consumers' evaluation of a product and their satisfaction with the co-production activity. It also includes hypotheses about how knowledge and perceived convenience are related to the evaluative constructs. The constructs are checked for reliability and validity, before using structural equation modelling in Lisrel to estimate the relationships between the constructs and their measures. The results showed that time use had a negative influence on perceived convenience and a positive effect on satisfaction with co-production, but did not influence the global evaluation of the product. Satisfaction with co-production and perceived convenience had a positive influence on the global evaluation. Knowledge had a negative influence on time use. Finally, knowledge and perceived convenience had a positive relationship with satisfaction with co-production. In total, seven out of nine hypotheses are supported by the data. The study suggests that time use, perceived convenience, and satisfaction with co-production can be an important variables in the understanding of the evaluative outcome of a co-produced product. The dual role of time use can be positioned as something the consumer wants to minimize for convenient reasons or extended in order to be satisfied with the co-production effort. The paper presents new insights into how co-production and time use influence product evaluation.

The effect of health benefit information on consumers health value, attitudes and intentions.

This research explored the effect of health benefit information on individuals' stated health value, attitudes towards functional/enriched foods, expectations, perceptions, and intentions to purchase a new fibre-enriched fish product. The study used a randomized design involving an experimental group receiving fibre and health information on the product and a control group who did not receive such information. The results indicated that consumers in the experimental group scored higher on the average attitudes towards functional/enriched foods than did consumers in the control group. No significant differences were observed for other variables. Following a value-attitude-behaviour approach, the study proposed a model relating consumers' health value to their attitudes towards functional/enriched foods, attitudes towards the new functional product and intention to purchase the product, and tested how information affected the structural model. Four of the seven relationships in the structural model proved to be moderated by information. For example, the results indicated that information constrained the association between the health value and product-related health perceptions or hedonic expectations, when individuals had negative attitudes towards the functional/enriched food products. Overall, the study advances the existing literature on the effects of information on consumer behaviour by adding insights into how information simultaneously influenced the mean values and the relationships among the health value, attitudinal factors and intention.

Combining the role of convenience and consideration set size in explaining fish consumption in Norway.

The purpose of this study is to explore how convenience orientation, perceived product inconvenience and consideration set size are related to attitudes towards fish and fish consumption. The authors present a structural equation model (SEM) based on the integration of two previous studies. The results of a SEM analysis using Lisrel 8.72 on data from a Norwegian consumer survey (n=1630) suggest that convenience orientation and perceived product inconvenience have a negative effect on both consideration set size and consumption frequency. Attitude towards fish has the greatest impact on consumption frequency. The results also indicate that perceived product inconvenience is a key variable since it has a significant impact on attitude, and on consideration set size and consumption frequency. Further, the analyses confirm earlier findings suggesting that the effect of convenience orientation on consumption is partially mediated through perceived product inconvenience. The study also confirms earlier findings suggesting that the consideration set size affects consumption frequency. Practical implications drawn from this research are that the seafood industry would benefit from developing and positioning products that change beliefs about fish as an inconvenient product. Future research for other food categories should be done to enhance the external validity.

Adolescents' influence in family meal decisions.

We analyzed the antecedents of adolescents' influence in family meal decisions, with a focus on fish. The results are based on a representative sample of about 1000 Norwegian schoolchildren between the age of 13 and 18 (adolescents). Fish is a mainstay of Norwegian diets ensuring high familiarity and divergent preferences between persons and among household members. Structural equation modelling was used to test how different individual and social variables influence two different assessments of perceived influence: absolute and relative influence. The findings showed that adolescents' motivation (involvement and reward), family communication patterns, social norms and parent preferences affect adolescents' participation in family decisions concerning fish as a main meal. Helping behaviour had no significant effect on perceived influence. Most of the results (12 of 14 relationships) are consistent with respect to both absolute and relative measures of perceived influence in family meal decisions.

The role of norms in explaining attitudes, intention and consumption of a common food (fish) in Vietnam.

The purpose of this study is to apply the conceptual framework of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to explain the consumption of a common food (fish) in Vietnam. We seek to understand the role of norms in explaining intention to consume, and descriptive norms is included as extensions of traditional constructs such as attitude, social norms, and perceived behavioral control. The data were derived from a cross-sectional sample of 612 consumers. Structural equation modeling was applied to test the relationships between constructs, and evaluate the reliability and the validity of the constructs. The results indicate that the models fit well with the data. Attitude, social norms, descriptive norms and behavioral control all had significantly positive effect on behavioral intention. Finally, both intention and perceived behavioral control were highly associated with the frequency of consumption of the common food investigated.

The role of consideration set size in explaining fish consumption.

This study demonstrates the relationship among attitude, knowledge and consideration set size (set size) and how these variables influence consumption frequency of fish. The proposed model was tested with cross-sectional data from a representative study of about 1100 Danish consumers. Structural equation modeling (LISREL) was used in order to simultaneously estimate the strength and direction of all relationships. The results of this study verify consideration set size as a partial mediator between both attitude and frequency and knowledge and frequency. Knowledge is suggested to be more important than attitude in forming the size of the consideration set. The size of the set is positively related to frequency of fish consumption, but with somewhat less direct effect than attitude and knowledge.

Exploring the relationship between convenience and fish consumption: a cross-cultural study.

The purpose of the present study is to explore cultural differences in the meaning of convenience and the relationships between convenience, attitudes and fish consumption in five European countries. The results suggest that the meaning of meal convenience is not culture specific, whilst the absolute levels of convenience orientation and the perceived inconvenience of fish differ between cultures. Convenience orientation was highest in Poland, followed by Spain, and was lowest in the Netherlands. The relationships between convenience orientation and attitudes towards fish, and convenience orientation and fish consumption, were insignificant in most countries. However, convenience orientation was positively related to the perceived inconvenience of fish. Perceived inconvenience of fish was negatively related to both attitudes towards fish and to fish consumption. Together, these results confirm some earlier findings that fish is generally perceived as a relatively inconvenient type of food. This study suggests that convenience orientation can be crucial to understanding food choice or behaviour only when critical mediating constructs are explored.

Intention to consume seafood--the importance of habit.

The role of habit strength and past behaviour were studied in order to gain a better understanding of seafood consumption behaviour. A sample of Norwegian adults (N=1579) responded to a self-administered questionnaire about seafood consumption habits, past frequency of seafood consumption, and attitude towards and intention to eat seafood. Structural equation modelling revealed that past behaviour and habit, rather than attitudes, were found to explain differences in intention, indicating that forming intention does not necessarily have to be reasoned. The results also indicated that when a strong habit is present, the expression of an intention might be guided by the salience of past behaviour rather than by attitudes. The findings of this study might thus have consequences for dietary interventions.