Portuguese research on physical education and sport didactics-a critical discussion.

This article presents a discussion of research in Physical Education and Sport Didactics in Portugal. It starts by situating it from an historical perspective, placing the 1980s as the beginning era, mainly based on the studies provided by the two first Physical Education higher education institutes of the country. The initial research, first based on master and doctoral dissertations, progressed to ongoing projects that have been disseminated in international and national journals and books. This development is also reported from the theoretical, conceptual, and methodological perspectives, showing how it has informed the quality of Physical Education and teacher education as the two main research strands to be described, however, acknowledging that a strand on sports coaching and coach education exists. On teaching Physical Education, the article discusses the elements relative to the teacher and to the student, focusing from the immediate and short-term to the distant and long-term events that lead into young adulthood's active lifestyles. In this analysis, research on curriculum and assessment are also reported. On physical education teacher education, the article shows the prevalence of the post-primary Physical Education to argue for the need for more research on primary-level education, and discusses the diverse foci from initial teacher education to in-service education practises. In line with current trends in research, we suggest a set of four features for the future research agenda: (1) addressing short to long-term outcomes of Physical Education; (2) adopting multifactorial and multi-layered perspectives of analysis; (3) embracing inter- and multidisciplinary designs; and (4) taking comparative perspectives within and between European countries, and between Europe and other continents. We conclude that these features need to focus on four levels of integration and cooperation: (a) integration between the research initiatives and the needs of the professional field; (b) integration between research on teaching and learning, teacher education and the curriculum; (c) cooperation between the different national higher education and professional institutions; and (d) integration in the international research agenda by leading and participating in project partnerships which are needed to fully and effectively implement such agenda.

Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment for adolescents (15-18 years): validation using confirmatory factor and composite analyses.

Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the construct validity and reliability of the Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment (PPLA) instruments (a questionnaire and a tool using teacher-reported data). We also investigated the conceptual and practical implications of reflective vs. formative measurement of Physical Literacy using the PPLA. Methods: Multiple Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Confirmatory Composite Analysis (CCA) models were used complementarily to assess construct validity in a sample of 521 grade 10-12 Portuguese students from Lisbon, Portugal. Bifactor model-based indices (ω), Explained Common Variance (ECV), and Percentage of Uncontaminated Correlations (PUC) were used to assess score reliability and adequacy. Results: Using CFA, an asymmetrical bifactor model (S*1-1) provided the best fit to the data [Robust Comparative Fit Index = 97, Robust Root Mean Square Error Of Approximation = 0.05 (0.04-0.06), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.04], while CCA resulted in the best absolute fit for single first-order composite models (dG, dL, and SRMR below or borderline of their 95% critical value). Through a reflective paradigm, the total PL score should not be used in isolation (ECV = 0.49, ωH = 0.71, lower than recommended 0.80). Subscales for the Physical, Psychological, and Social domains attained acceptable reliability scores (ωs = 0.76, 0.82, 0.80, and 0.60). Conclusions: A general trait of PL accounts for considerable variance in all indicators. We advise calculation of a total summed PL score and domain scores, which should be interpreted conjointly in applied settings. Despite both paradigms being tenable, future research efforts should use a bifactor measurement model, which permits disentanglement of the variance attributed to the general PL trait and its domains. Overall, evidence supported the construct validity and reliability of the PPLA for its intended use as an integrated tool to measure PL as a multidimensional construct in 15- to 18-year-old Portuguese students in a physical education setting.

Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment Questionnaire (PPLA-Q) for Adolescents: Validity and Reliability of the Psychological and Social Modules using Mokken Scale Analysis.

We examined the construct validity and reliability of the previously developed Psychological and Social modules of the Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment Questionnaire (PPLA-Q) using Mokken Scale Analysis in a sample of 508 Portuguese adolescents in public schools in Lisbon. We used a retest subsample (n = 73) to calculate the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient. Eight PPLA-Q scales can be interpreted as moderate-to-strong Mokken scales (H = .47-.66) with good total-score reliability (ρ = .83-.94), and moderate-to-excellent test-retest reliability (ICC95%CI = .51-.95); four scales had an interpretable invariant item ordering. All but the Physical Regulation scale functioned similarly across sex. Scale-scores correlated as expected, with low-to-moderate correlations across domains supporting convergent and discriminant validity. These results support the construct validity and reliability of the PPLA-Q to assess the psychological and social domains of physical literacy in Portuguese adolescents (15-18 years) enrolled in physical education.

Physical literacy in Europe: The current state of implementation in research, practice, and policy.

Background/objective: The holistic concept of physical literacy (PL) embraces different person-centered qualities (physical, cognitive, affective/psychological) necessary to lead physically active lifestyles. PL has recently gained increasing attention globally and Europe is no exception. However, scientific endeavors summarizing the current state of PL in Europe are lacking. Therefore, the goal of this study was to comprehensively assess and compare the implementation of PL in research, policy, and practice across the continent. Methods: We assembled a panel of experts representing 25 European countries. Employing a complementary mixed-methods design, the experts first prepared reviews about the current state of PL in their countries (categories: research, practice/policy). The reviews underwent comparative document analysis, ensuring a transnational four-eyes principle. For re-validation purposes, the representatives completed a quantitative survey with questions reflecting the inductive themes from the document analysis. Results: The document analysis resulted in ten disjunct themes (related to "concept", "research", "practice/policy", "future/prospect") and yielded a heterogenous PL situation in Europe. The implementation state was strongly linked to conceptual discussions (e.g., existence of competing approaches), linguistic issues (e.g., translations), and country-specific traditions. Despite growing scholarly attention, PL hesitantly permeates practice and policy in most countries. Nevertheless, the experts largely anticipate increasing popularity of PL for the future. Conclusion: Despite the heterogeneous situation across Europe, the analysis has uncovered similarities among the countries, such as the presence of established yet not identical concepts. Research should intensify academic activities (conceptual-linguistic elaborations, empirical work) before PL may gain further access into practical and political spheres in the long term.

Adolescents' Perceived Barriers to Physical Activity during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents' routines were deeply affected, which negatively impacted their level of PA. Knowing the barriers to PA in adolescence is relevant, because the perception of more barriers is one of the most consistent negative correlates of PA participation. The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare the barriers perceived by adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic by sex, education level, PA level, and BMI. A total of 1369 students (621 boys and 748 girls; mean age: 14.4 years; SD: 1.74) participated in the study. The chi-square test was used to analyze the differences between groups. Only 3.1% of the adolescents complied with the international guidelines for PA. In general, the barriers with the highest prevalence were the COVID-19 pandemic, lack of time, and taking time away from study. The number of perceived barriers to PA was higher among girls, younger, and inactive participants. Boys selected more the barriers due to COVID-19 than girls, and students with normal weight chose more barriers than those with overweight. This study provides information on adolescents' PA barriers during the COVID-19 pandemic and draws attention to the negative effects that restrictive measures have had on adolescents' PA levels.

Basic Motor Competencies of 6- to 8-Year-Old Primary School Children in 10 European Countries: A Cross-Sectional Study on Associations With Age, Sex, Body Mass Index, and Physical Activity.

Basic motor competencies (BMC) are a prerequisite for children to be physically active, participate in sports and thus develop a healthy, active lifestyle. The present study provides a broad screening of BMC and associations with age, sex, body mass index (BMI) and extracurricular physical activity (PA) in 10 different European countries. The different country and regional contexts within Europe will offer a novel view on already established BMC associations. The cross-sectional study was conducted in 11 regions in 10 European countries in 2018. The motor competence areas, object movement (OM) and self-movement (SM), were assessed using the MOBAK-1-2 test instrument in 3758 first and second graders (age: M = 6.86 ± 0.60 years; 50% girls) during Physical Education classes. Children were questioned about their extracurricular PA and age. Their body weight and height were measured in order to calculate BMI. Statistical analyses included variances and correlations. The results showed significant differences in BMC levels between countries (OM: F = 18.74, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.048; SM: F = 73.10, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.163) whereas associations between BMC and correlates were similar. Boys performed significantly better in OM while girls performed better in SM. Age was consistently positively related to OM and SM with older children reaching higher levels of BMC than younger ones. While participation rates for extracurricular PA differed widely, participation in ball sports was correlated with OM and SM. Participation in individual sports showed a significant association with SM. In summary, BMC levels of children seem to depend on where they live and are strongly related to their participation in extracurricular PA. Therefore, education and health policies, in order to enhance motor competence development and PA participation, are recommended. Further research on country-specific Physical Education frameworks and their influence on BMC will provide more insights into structural factors and cultural characteristics of BMC development. On a school level, support tools and educational materials for teachers about BMC may enable children to achieve a basic level of motor competencies through Physical Education, contributing to lifelong participation in PA.

Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment - Observation (PPLA-O) for adolescents (15-18 years) from grades 10-12: Development and initial validation through item response theory.

Introduction: Aims of these studies were to develop the Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment Observation instrument (PPLA-O) to assess the physical and part of the cognitive domain of Physical Literacy (PL) through data collected routinely by Physical Education (PE) teachers; and to assess the construct validity (dimensionality, measurement invariance, and convergent and discriminant validity) and score reliability of one of its modules [Movement Competence, Rules, and Tactics (MCRT)]. Methods: Content analysis of the Portuguese PE syllabus and literature review were used for PPLA-O domain identification. Multidimensional Item Response Theory (MIRT) models were used to assess construct validity and reliability, along with bivariate correlations in a sample of 515 Portuguese grade 10-12 students (M age = 16, SD = 1). Results: PPLA-O development resulted in an instrument with two modules: MCRT (22 physical activities) and Health-Related Fitness (HRF; 5 protocols); both assessed with teacher-reported data entered in a spreadsheet. A two correlated dimensions Graded Response Model (Manipulative-based Activities [MA], and Stability-based Activities [SA]) showed best fit to the MCRT data, suggesting measurement invariance across sexes, and adequate to good score reliabilities (MA = .89, and SA = .73). There was a moderate to high correlation (r = .68) between dimensions, and boys had higher scores in both dimensions. Correlations among MCRT scores and HRF variables were similar in magnitude to previous reports in meta-analysis and systematic reviews. Conclusions: PPLA-O is composed of two modules that integrate observational data collected by PE teachers into a common frame of criterion-referenced PL assessment. The HRF module uses data collected through widely validated FITescola® assessment protocols. The MCRT makes use of teacher-reported data collected in a wide range of activities and movement pursuits to measure movement competence and inherent cognitive skills (Tactics and Rules). We also gathered initial evidence supporting construct validity and score reliability of the MCRT module. This highly feasible instrument can provide Portuguese grade 10-12 (15-18 years) PE students with feedback on their PL journey, along with the other instrument of PPLA (PPLA-Questionnaire). Further studies should assess inter and intra-rater reliability and criterion-related validity of its two modules.

Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment Questionnaire (PPLA-Q) for adolescents (15-18 years) from grades 10-12: development, content validation and pilot testing.

BACKGROUND: The Portuguese Physical Literacy Assessment (PPLA) is a novel tool to assess high-school students' (grade 10-12; 15-18 years) Physical Literacy (PL) in Physical Education (PE); inspired by the four domains of the Australian Physical Literacy Framework (APLF), and the Portuguese PE syllabus. This paper describes the development, content validation, and pilot testing of the PPLA-Questionnaire (PPLA-Q), one of two instruments in the PPLA, comprised of modules to assess the psychological, social, and part of the cognitive domain of PL. METHODS: Development was supported by previous work, analysis of the APLF, and literature review. We iteratively gathered evidence on content validity through two rounds of qualitative and quantitative expert validation (n = 11); three rounds of cognitive interviews with high-school students (n = 12); and multiple instances of expert advisor input. A pilot study in two grade 10 classes (n = 41) assessed feasibility, preliminary reliability, item difficulty and discrimination. RESULTS: Initial versions of the PPLA-Q gathered evidence in favor of adequate content validity at item level: most items had an Item-Content Validity Index ≥.78 and Cohen's κ ≥ .76. At module-level, S-CVI/Ave and UA were .87/.60, .98/.93 and .96/.84 for the cognitive, psychological, and social modules, respectively. Through the pilot study, we found evidence for feasibility, preliminary subscale and item reliability, difficulty, and discrimination. Items were reviewed through qualitative methods until saturation. Current PPLA-Q consists of 3 modules: cognitive (knowledge test with 10 items), psychological (46 Likert-type items) and social (43 Likert-type items). CONCLUSION: Results of this study provide evidence for content validity, feasibility within PE setting and preliminary reliability of the PPLA-Q as an instrument to assess the psychological, social, and part of the cognitive domain of PL in grade 10 to 12 adolescents. Further validation and development are needed to establish construct validity and reliability, and study PPLA-Q's integration with the PPLA-Observation (an instrument in development to assess the remaining domains of PL) within the PPLA framework.

Adolescents' Perspectives on the Barriers and Facilitators of Physical Activity: An Updated Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies.

Listening to adolescents' voices has been important to promote meaningful physical activity (PA) opportunities. Therefore, an updated systematic review of the available qualitative literature on adolescents' perspectives on the barriers and facilitators of PA was conducted, according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies published between 2014 (date of the last systematic review) and 2020 were searched in the Web of Science, EBSCO, and SCOPUS databases. Based on the inclusion criteria applied, 30 out of 8069 studies were included in the review. A thematic analysis was used to inductively and deductively analyze the perspectives of ~1250 adolescents (13-18 years). The studies took place in 13 countries from different continents. The main PA barriers and facilitators of PA were presented and discussed around five higher-order themes: (1) Individual factors (e.g., psychological-motivation, self-efficacy; cognitive-knowledge, understanding; physical-motor skills); (2) social and relational factors (family, friends, significant others); (3) PA nature factors (fun, school-based PA and physical education); (4) life factors (time and competing activities; life-course); and (5) sociocultural and environmental factors (e.g., availability/access to PA facilities, programs; urban/rural zones). By transnationally framing adolescents' voices, this study provides updated evidence and discusses innovative implications for developing tailored interventions and pedagogical strategies aimed at promoting active and healthy lifestyles.

A school-based intervention for a better future: study protocol of Sintra Grows Healthy.

BACKGROUND: Preventing childhood obesity is a public health challenge of the twenty-first century and it must be a priority. Governments play a major role in creating and supporting a healthy school environment and should prioritise actions to improve children's health. Sintra Grows Healthy aims to promote healthy lifestyles to prevent childhood obesity and improve children's health-related quality of life and social and emotional skills, through the development of a school evidence-based and sustainable model. METHODS: This protocol describes a quasi-experimental design and community-based participatory research. The participants included in the study are the school community of Portuguese public primary schools from the municipality of Sintra. Data will be collected on demographic and socio-economic characterization, nutritional status, eating habits and behaviours, physical activity, sedentary behaviours and sleep, health-related quality of life, and social and emotional skills. DISCUSSION: There is evidence to support interventions in school settings as strategies for obesity prevention. Up-to-date homogeneous and community-based interventions for preventing childhood obesity are lacking, therefore Sintra Grows Healthy intends to fill this gap. Furthermore, Sintra Grows Healthy aims to contribute with relevant scientific findings that will allow the development of better strategies for policymakers and society to manage this major public health problem.

A Comparative Study of Participation in Physical Education Classes among 170,347 Adolescents from 54 Low-, Middle-, and High-Income Countries.

Given the need for comparative research on the participation of adolescents in physical education (PE) classes as a privileged space for physical activity (PA) promotion, this study sought to estimate, analyse and compare the prevalence of participation in PE classes among adolescents from 54 countries and to examine sex, age, country income and world regions disparities. Data from the Global Students Health Survey (2010-2015) were used, comprising 170,347 adolescents (90,305 girls, aged 13-17 years) from nationally representative samples of 54 countries-of which 7 are low-income, 23 lower-middle-income, 14 upper-middle-income and 10 high-income-and six world regions. The weighted percentages of adolescents participating in PE classes (never, 1-2 days/week, 3-4 days/week, 5 or more days/week) were estimated along 95% confidence intervals and compared across sex, age, country income, region, and country. Most adolescents reported to participate in PE on 1-2 days/week (55.2%), but almost 20% of adolescents reported never participating in PE. Girls, compared to boys, presented a lower prevalence for participating ≥5 days/week (girls 16.8%, boys 20.0%). The prevalence of participating in PE on ≥3 days/week was higher among adolescents aged 13-14 years when compared to adolescents aged 15-17 years (boys: 30.9% vs. 24.6%; girls: 26.1% vs. 18.2%). Concerning the countries' income, the prevalence of never participating in PE was higher in high-income countries, and participating on ≥3 days/week was higher in low-income countries, but further research is recommended. The findings suggest that national, regional and worldwide data highlight the importance of improving participation in PE, particularly for girls and older adolescents. An improved and continued monitoring of PE policies and their actual implementation is needed worldwide.

MOBAK 1 Assessment in Primary Physical Education: Exploring Basic Motor Competences of Portuguese 6-Year-Olds.

Children's motor competence is known to have a determinant role in learning and engaging later in complex motor skills and, thus, in physical activity. The development of adequate motor competence is a central aim of physical education, and assuring that pupils are learning and developing motor competence depends on accurate assessment protocols. The MOBAK 1 test battery is a recent instrument developed to assess motor competence in primary physical education. This study used the MOBAK 1 to explore motor competence levels and gender differences among 249 ( Mage = 6.3, SD = 0.5 years; 127 girls and 122 boys) Grade 1 primary school Portuguese children. On independent sample t tests, boys presented higher object movement motor competence than girls (boys: M = 5.8, SD = 1.7; girls: M = 4.0, SD = 1.7; p < .001), while girls were more proficient among self-movement skills (girls: M = 5.1, SD = 1.8; boys: M = 4.3, SD = 1.7; p < .01). On "total motor competence," boys ( M = 10.3, SD = 2.6) averaged one point ahead of girls ( M = 9.1, SD = 2.9). The percentage of girls in the first quartile of object movement was 18.9%, while, for "self movement," the percentage of boys in the first quartile was almost double that of girls (30.3% and 17.3%, respectively). The confirmatory model to test for construct validity confirmed the assumed theoretical two-factor structure of MOBAK 1 test items in this Portuguese sample. These results support the MOBAK 1 instrument for assessing motor competence and highlighted gender differences, of relevance to intervention efforts.

The correlates of meeting physical activity recommendations: a population-based cross-sectional study.

The aim of this study was to identify correlated factors which explain the recommended level of leisure time physical activity (LTPA) among Portuguese adults. Subjects aged 31-60 years (972 males, 1195 females) were categorized, based on LTPA data obtained using a questionnaire, into two groups according to the PA recommendation for PA: ≥ 10 or < 10 MET · hr · wk(-1). Chi-square and logistic regression analyses were applied to the results. For men, the perception of an active lifestyle [odds ratio (OR) = 4.61, 95% CI:3.13-6.81, p <0.001], having an excellent perception of health (OR = 3.14, 95% CI:1.28-7.71, p =0.013), perception of being sufficiently active (OR = 2.16, 95% CI:1.53-3.05, p <0.001), and having a high socio-economic status (SES) (OR = 1.86, 95% CI:1.22-2.81, p =0.004) were associated with attaining the recommended level of PA. For women, the perception of an active lifestyle (OR = 3.68, 95% CI:2.63-5.15, p <0.001), and middle SES (OR = 1.50, 95% CI:1.07-2.11, p =0.018) were positive and associated with meeting PA recommendations. Unlike men, women with body mass index (BMI) 25-29.9 kg/m(2) were more likely to attain the recommended level of PA than those with BMI <25 kg/m(2). The incidence of adults that met the recommended amount of PA is low. Men and women had different patterns of psychological and socio-demographic correlates. An intervention designed to improve the levels of PA among Portuguese adults may take these correlates into account.