Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as a potential source of carcinogenicity of mate.

Drinking mate, an infusion of the herb ilex paraguariensis, is very common in several South American countries, and has been associated with an increased risk of esophageal cancer. This increased risk may be attributed to drinking mate very hot, or to mate's potentially carcinogenic contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Mate leaves are often dried via smoking, and therefore commercial samples may have high amounts of PAHs. We found 10 original articles that had measured PAHs in commercial dry samples, and nearly all found very high mass fractions. Most studies found benzo[a]pyrene mass fractions to be over 25 ng/g, and some found levels up to 600 ng/g. However, carcinogenic PAHs are often hydrophobic, and may not readily transfer into infusions. Seven articles studied transfer rates, and these rates varied from 1 to 50%, depending on the methods employed. Further careful studies of transfer rates in situations that mimic real life drinking of mate are recommended. Also, further studies of biological indicators of PAH exposure, particularly in randomized experiments, and analyzing DNA from tumor samples of mate drinkers are recommended.

Causes of premature death and their associated risk factors in the Golestan Cohort Study, Iran.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the causes of premature mortality (<70 years) and associated risk factors in the Golestan Cohort Study. DESIGN: Prospective. SETTING: The Golestan Cohort Study in northeastern Iran. PARTICIPANTS: 50 045 people aged 40 or more participated in this population-based study from baseline (2004-2008) to August 2017, with over 99% success follow-up rate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The top causes of premature death, HR and their 95% CI and population attributable fraction (PAF) for risk factors. RESULTS: After 444 168 person-years of follow-up (median of 10 years), 6347 deaths were reported, of which 4018 (63.3%) occurred prematurely. Ischaemic heart disease (IHD) accounted for 33.9% of premature death, followed by stroke (14.0%), road injuries (4.7%), stomach cancer (4.6%) and oesophageal cancer (4.6%). Significant risk/protective factors were: wealth score (HR for highest vs lowest quintile: 0.57, PAF for lowest four quintiles vs top quintile: 28%), physical activity (highest vs lowest tertile: 0.67, lowest two tertiles vs top tertile: 22%), hypertension (1.50, 19%), opium use (1.69, 14%), education (middle school or higher vs illiterate: 0.84, illiterate or primary vs middle school or higher: 13%), tobacco use (1.38, 11%), diabetes (2.39, 8%) and vegetable/fruit consumption (highest vs lowest tertile: 0.87, lowest two tertiles vs top tertile: 8%). Collectively, these factors accounted for 76% of PAF in men and 69% in women. CONCLUSION: IHD and stroke are the leading causes of premature mortality in the Golestan Cohort Study. Enhancing socioeconomic status and physical activity, reducing opium and tobacco use, increasing vegetable/fruit consumption and controlling hypertension and diabetes are recommended to reduce premature deaths.

Addressing Health Care Disparities Among Sexual Minorities.

There is evidence of health disparities between sexual minority and heterosexual populations. Although the focus of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health research has been human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and sexually transmitted infection among men who have sex with men, there are health disparities among sexual minority women. Using the minority stress framework, these disparities may in part be caused by individual prejudice, social stigma, and discrimination. To ensure equitable health for all, there is urgent need for targeted culturally sensitive health promotion, cultural sensitivity training for health care providers, and intervention-focused research.