Controversial Topics in Animal Welfare in Latin America: A Focus on the Legislation Surrounding the Human-Companion Animal Relationship and Animals Used for Recreational Practices.

Animal welfare is a societally relevant issue that is globally attracting increased attention. This is in addition to the importance placed on welfare for the animals themselves. However, the content and application of laws protecting animals' welfare vary across countries. In Latin America, there are a range of common practices or activities involving certain animal species, many of which are legal, that can impair an animal's quality of life. These include the performance of aesthetic surgical procedures; bull-, cock-, and dog fighting; and the existence of circuses that exhibit animals. The extent and impact of these practices being dependent on the socioeconomic, cultural, territorial, and regulatory landscape of each country. Particularly, Ibero-American regions face welfare challenges that might be influenced by traditions and relevant legal gaps. The objective of this article is to review controversial practices carried out in companion and entertainment animals in Latin America, with a focus on legal aspects, as well as the current efforts being made to address and incorporate global welfare standards into domestic and wild animal practice and regulation.

Mother-Young Bonding: Neurobiological Aspects and Maternal Biochemical Signaling in Altricial Domesticated Mammals.

Mother-young bonding is a type of early learning where the female and their newborn recognize each other through a series of neurobiological mechanisms and neurotransmitters that establish a behavioral preference for filial individuals. This process is essential to promote their welfare by providing maternal care, particularly in altricial species, animals that require extended parental care due to their limited neurodevelopment at birth. Olfactory, auditory, tactile, and visual stimuli trigger the neural integration of multimodal sensory and conditioned affective associations in mammals. This review aims to discuss the neurobiological aspects of bonding processes in altricial mammals, with a focus on the brain structures and neurotransmitters involved and how these influence the signaling during the first days of the life of newborns.

Mother-young bond in non-human mammals: Neonatal communication pathways and neurobiological basis.

Mother-young bonding is a process by which the young establish social preferences for their mother. It fosters reproductive success and the survival of offspring by providing food, heat, and maternal care. This process promotes the establishment of the mother-young bond through the interaction of olfactory, auditory, tactile, visual, and thermal stimuli. The neural integration of multimodal sensory stimuli and attachment is coordinated into motor responses. The sensory and neurobiological mechanisms involved in filial recognition in precocial and altricial mammals are summarized and analyzed in this review.

Meconium Aspiration Syndrome in Animal Models: Inflammatory Process, Apoptosis, and Surfactant Inactivation.

Meconium Aspiration Syndrome is a condition that causes respiratory distress in newborns due to occlusion and airway inflammation, and surfactant inactivation by meconium. This condition has been described in animal species such as canids, sheep, cattle, horses, pigs, and marine mammals. In its pathogenesis, the pulmonary epithelium activates a limited inflammatory response initiated by cytokines causing leukocyte chemotaxis, inhibition of phagocytosis, and pathogen destruction. Likewise, cytokines release participates in the apoptosis processes of pneumocytes due to the interaction of angiotensin with cytokines and the caspase pathway. Due to these reactions, the prevalent signs are lung injury, hypoxia, acidosis, and pneumonia with susceptibility to infection. Given the importance of the pathophysiological mechanism of meconium aspiration syndrome, this review aims to discuss the relevance of the syndrome in veterinary medicine. The inflammatory processes caused by meconium aspiration in animal models will be analyzed, and the cellular apoptosis and biochemical processes of pulmonary surfactant inactivation will be discussed.

Analgesia during Parturition in Domestic Animals: Perspectives and Controversies on Its Use.

This article analyzes the physiological role of pain during parturition in domestic animals, discusses the controversies surrounding the use of opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and local analgesics as treatments during labor, and presents the advantages and disadvantages for mother and offspring. Labor is a potentially stressful and painful event, due to the contractions that promote expulsion of the fetus. During labor, neurotransmitters such as the prostaglandins contribute to the sensitization of oxytocin receptors in the myometrium and the activation of nociceptive fibers, thus supporting the physiological role of pain. Endogenously, the body secretes opioid peptides that modulate harmful stimuli and, at the same time, can inhibit oxytocin's action in the myometrium. Treating pain during the different stages of parturition is an option that can help prevent such consequences as tachycardia, changes in breathing patterns, and respiratory acidosis, all of which can harm the wellbeing of offspring. However, studies have found that some analgesics can promote myometrial contractility, increase expulsion time, affect fetal circulation, and alter mother-offspring recognition due to hypnotic effects. Other data, however, indicate that reducing the number of uterine contractions with analgesics increases their potency, thus improving maternal performance. Managing pain during labor requires understanding the tocolytic properties of analgesics and their advantages in preventing the consequences of pain.

The Neurobiology of Behavior and Its Applicability for Animal Welfare: A Review.

Understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior and well-being can help us better achieve animal welfare. Behavior is the expression of several physiological, endocrine, motor and emotional responses that are coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. In mammals, seven basic emotional systems have been described that when activated by the right stimuli evoke positive or negative innate responses that evolved to facilitate biological fitness. This review describes the process of how those neurobiological systems can directly influence animal welfare. We also describe examples of the interaction between primary (innate) and secondary (learned) processes that influence behavior.

Handling and Physiological Aspects of the Dual-Purpose Water Buffalo Production System in the Mexican Humid Tropics.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the characteristics of the dual-purpose water buffalo production based on the Mexican production system as a model in tropical wetlands. It includes a broad literature review emphasizing the most recent and specialized publications examining key findings to improve our understanding in the performance of the buffalo species (Bubalus bubalis). The complementary topics addressed include reproductive management, parturition, the dam-calf bond, milking routines, and models of confinement and management, in addition to aspects related to milk commercialization. This article summarizes the advances made to date in this production system and its current margins for improvement. The development of dual-purpose water buffalo production systems in Mexico's tropical wetlands is a relatively recent phenomenon that has progressed and improved due to herd management. Buffaloes are an interesting alternative for dual purpose systems that offer several advantages. The lower milk production of this species compared to cattle is its main limitation. However, the properties of their milk allow one to obtain an added value and make this type of farms competitive. In synthesis, consolidating buffalo production in Mexico's tropical wetlands will require broadening our knowledge of this species, and perfecting the most appropriate handling procedures. The activities of government agencies and processing enterprises will play vital roles in achieving the integral modernization of this potentially important economic activity.

The Effect of Maternal Behavior around Calving on Reproduction and Wellbeing of Zebu Type Cows and Calves.

The behaviors associated with domestic cattle such as maternal care are quite similar to those behaviors observed in wild ungulates. These behaviors allow the cow to bond with her calf, protect and provide it with nourishment and ultimately reduce the bond at weaning. Although maternal behavior is an important factor influencing the survival and early development of the newborn calf, Zebu type cows around calving have not been studied extensively. Herein, we consider the four main aspects of maternal behavior in cattle and particularly Bos indicus cows and calves. Firstly, we provide a brief description of the behavior of cows around parturition and the behavior of the first stages of the calves' lives. In the second part, the protective behavior of the mother is analyzed. Subsequently, examples of animal welfare implications followed by an analysis of some factors that affect calf survival, including mother experience and weather conditions, are discussed, and in the last part, reproduction along with some peculiarities of reproductive behavior, and the wellbeing of mother and calves are examined. We concluded that knowledge of maternal behavior of Zebu type cows around calving and interactions with calves might contribute to an enhanced reproductive efficiency of the mother and the welfare of the calf.

Allonursing in Wild and Farm Animals: Biological and Physiological Foundations and Explanatory Hypotheses.

The dams of gregarious animals must develop a close bond with their newborns to provide them with maternal care, including protection against predators, immunological transference, and nutrition. Even though lactation demands high energy expenditures, behaviors known as allonursing (the nursing of non-descendant infants) and allosuckling (suckling from any female other than the mother) have been reported in various species of wild or domestic, and terrestrial or aquatic animals. These behaviors seem to be elements of a multifactorial strategy, since reports suggest that they depend on the following: species, living conditions, social stability, and kinship relations, among other group factors. Despite their potential benefits, allonursing and allosuckling can place the health and welfare of both non-filial dams and alien offspring at risk, as it augments the probability of pathogen transmission. This review aims to analyze the biological and physiological foundations and bioenergetic costs of these behaviors, analyzing the individual and collective advantages and disadvantages for the dams' own offspring(s) and alien neonate(s). We also include information on the animal species in which these behaviors occur and their implications on animal welfare.

Quality of Death in Fighting Bulls during Bullfights: Neurobiology and Physiological Responses.

During bullfights, bulls undergo physiometabolic responses such as glycolysis, anaerobic reactions, cellular oedema, splenic contraction, and hypovolemic shock. The objective of this review article is to present the current knowledge on the factors that cause stress in fighting bulls during bullfights, including their dying process, by discussing the neurobiology and their physiological responses. The literature shows that biochemical imbalances occur during bullfights, including hypercalcaemia, hypermagnesaemia, hyperphosphataemia, hyperlactataemia, and hyperglycaemia, associated with increased endogenous cortisol and catecholamine levels. Creatine kinase, citrate synthase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels also increase, coupled with decreases in pH, blood bicarbonate levels, excess base, partial oxygen pressure, and oxygen saturation. The intense exercise also causes a marked decrease of glycogen in type I and II muscle fibres that can produce myoglobinuria and muscular necrosis. Other observations suggest the presence of osteochondrosis. The existing information allows us to conclude that during bullfights, bulls face energy and metabolic demands due to the high intensity and duration of the exercise performed, together with muscular injuries, physiological changes, and high enzyme concentrations. In addition, the final stage of the bullfight causes a slow dying process for an animal that is sentient and conscious of its surroundings.

Neurophysiological Mechanisms of Mother-Young Bonding in Buffalo and Other Farm Animals.

In buffaloes and other mammalian farm species, the mother provides food and protection to the young, but she is also the main source of behavioral and social learning for the offspring. It is important that mother and young establish a bond based on a learning mechanism defined as "imprinting" early after parturition during the sensitive period, on which the welfare and survival of the offspring will depend. This review aims to summarize and discuss current knowledge regarding the imprinting process, the neurobiological pathways that are triggered during this sensitive period, and the development of the cow-calf bond. Touch, hearing, vision, and smell seem to be the predominant senses involved during imprinting in buffaloes and other mammalian farm species. In buffalo, bonding is very particular due to the expression of specific behaviors, such as allo-suckling and communal rearing. In general, imprinting and the subsequent bond may be affected by the lack of experience of the mothers or dystocic parturitions, which occur most frequently with male calves and in primiparous dams. The main problems in the development of this process include lack of seeking a protected and isolated place to give birth; moving from the birth-site after parturition; insufficient postpartum care; aversion or aggressiveness towards the newborn, or abandonment of the newborn. The process can develop differently according to the species. However, the correct development of the cow-calf relationship represents, regardless of the species, a key factor for their fitness.

Physiological and Behavioral Mechanisms of Thermoregulation in Mammals.

This review analyzes the main anatomical structures and neural pathways that allow the generation of autonomous and behavioral mechanisms that regulate body heat in mammals. The study of the hypothalamic neuromodulation of thermoregulation offers broad areas of opportunity with practical applications that are currently being strengthened by the availability of efficacious tools like infrared thermography (IRT). These areas could include the following: understanding the effect of climate change on behavior and productivity; analyzing the effects of exercise on animals involved in sporting activities; identifying the microvascular changes that occur in response to fear, pleasure, pain, and other situations that induce stress in animals; and examining thermoregulating behaviors. This research could contribute substantially to understanding the drastic modification of environments that have severe consequences for animals, such as loss of appetite, low productivity, neonatal hypothermia, and thermal shock, among others. Current knowledge of these physiological processes and complex anatomical structures, like the nervous systems and their close relation to mechanisms of thermoregulation, is still limited. The results of studies in fields like evolutionary neuroscience of thermoregulation show that we cannot yet objectively explain even processes that on the surface seem simple, including behavioral changes and the pathways and connections that trigger mechanisms like vasodilatation and panting. In addition, there is a need to clarify the connection between emotions and thermoregulation that increases the chances of survival of some organisms. An increasingly precise understanding of thermoregulation will allow us to design and apply practical methods in fields like animal science and clinical medicine without compromising levels of animal welfare. The results obtained should not only increase the chances of survival but also improve quality of life and animal production.

Pain at the Slaughterhouse in Ruminants with a Focus on the Neurobiology of Sensitisation.

We pose, based on a neurobiological examination, that events that occur around the time of slaughter have the potential to intensify the pain response, through the processes of sensitisation and enhanced transmission. Sensitisation, or an enhanced response to painful stimuli, is a well-discussed phenomenon in the human medical literature, which can arise from previous injury to an area, inflammatory reactions, or previous overstimulation of the stress axes. A number of events that occur prior to arrival at, or in the slaughterhouse, may lead to presence of these factors. This includes previous on-farm pathology, injuries arising from transport and handling and lack of habituation to humans. Whilst there is limited evidence of a direct effect of these on the processes of sensitisation in animals at slaughter, by analogy with the human neurobiology literature the connection seems plausible. In this review a neurobiological approach is taken to discuss this hypothesis in the light of basic science, and extrapolations from existing literature on the slaughter of ruminants. To confirm the postulated link between events at slaughter, and processes of hypersensitisation, further dedicated study is required.

Behavioral and physiological responses to early weaning in ewes and their single or twin lambs.

As during the early postpartum, ewes and their twin lambs have a weaker bond than ewes that rear single lambs; it might be expected that early artificial weaning would trigger less intense behavioral and physiological responses in mothers and their twin lambs than in mothers and their single lambs. The aim of this study was to compare the behavioral and physiological responses of ewes and their twin or single lambs to early weaning. The study was performed with 19 Saint Croix ewes: 10 bearing single lambs and nine bearing twins (data from only one sibling from each pair of twins was collected). Lambs were weaned at 43 days old. Body weight, stress-related behaviors, and blood protein concentrations were recorded in ewes and lambs before and after weaning. Single lambs were heavier and paced more frequently during the day of weaning than twin lambs (10.6 ± 0.4 vs 8.9 ± 0.4 kg; P = 0.007 and 4.1 ± 0.4 vs 1.5 ± 0.4%; P = 0.0003, respectively). In addition, ewes rearing single lambs paced and vocalized more than twin lambs' mothers the day of weaning (pacing, 42.4 ± 1.1 vs 20.0 ± 1.2%; P < 0.0001; vocalizations, 43.1 ± 2.6 vs 21.3 ± 2.7%; P < 0.0001). Litter size affected only ewes' albumin concentration, without other effects in protein concentrations in ewes or lambs. In conclusion, early weaning triggered stronger behavioral responses in mothers and their single lamb than in mothers and their twin lambs.

Infrared thermal imaging associated with pain in laboratory animals.

The science of animal welfare has evolved over the years, and recent scientific advances have enhanced our comprehension of the neurological, physiological, and ethological mechanisms of diverse animal species. Currently, the study of the affective states (emotions) of nonhuman animals is attracting great scientific interest focused primarily on negative experiences such as pain, fear, and suffering, which animals experience in different stages of their lives or during scientific research. Studies underway today seek to establish methods of evaluation that can accurately measure pain and then develop effective treatments for it, because the techniques available up to now are not sufficiently precise. One innovative technology that has recently been incorporated into veterinary medicine for the specific purpose of studying pain in animals is called infrared thermography (IRT), a technique that works by detecting and measuring levels of thermal radiation at different points on the body's surface with high sensitivity. Changes in IRT images are associated mainly with blood perfusion, which is modulated by the mechanisms of vasodilatation and vasoconstriction. IRT is an efficient, noninvasive method for evaluating and controlling pain, two critical aspects of animal welfare in biomedical research. The aim of the present review is to compile and analyze studies of infrared thermographic changes associated with pain in laboratory research involving animals.

Consumption of Maternal Placenta in Humans and Nonhuman Mammals: Beneficial and Adverse Effects.

Placentophagia is a common mammalian behavior, and the first scientific study of the potential effects of human maternal placentophagia on lactation was in 1917. More recently, in the 1970s, human placentophagia was reported in North America with a trend toward increased consumption. There are different hypotheses about the women and nonhuman mammals' motivation towards placentophagia, but few have been subject to hypotheses testing. In women, the controversy continues; on the one hand, researchers attribute benefits like increased breast milk, weight gain in newborns, decreased postpartum depression and fatigue, and improved mothers' mood. In contrast, bacterial or viral infections, hormonal, or trace elements that could become toxic for both the mother and baby are reported as possible health risks. Other reports argue a lack of scientific rigor to support the self-reported benefits of placentophagia. Also, the way the placenta is prepared (raw, cooked, dehydrated, processed, or encapsulated) alters its components, and thus the desired effects. This review provides relevant information and the different hypotheses and points of view around placentophagia. However, there are still questions to be resolved, and more studies are needed to confirm or reject the data generated so far about placentophagia in humans and nonhuman mammals.

Effects of Separation of Cows and Calves on Reproductive Performance and Animal Welfare in Tropical Beef Cattle.

Nursing a calf suppresses postpartum ovarian activity prolonging the period of anestrus. Diverse methods are used to reduce the effect of suckling; the most popular, restricted suckling, reduces the number of encounters mother-calf. Temporal weaning of the calf for periods of 24 h, 48 h, or even 72 h also suppress the effect of suckling and is commonly applied to cow-calf operations in the tropics. Early weaning of the calf, usually three to five months after birth, is a practice gaining popularity over the traditional system of weaning at seven months. Furthermore, the use of nose-flaps in the calf to avoid suckling is a common procedure in South America. Finally, weaning during the first week after calving is an established method to reduce postpartum anestrus. The objective of the present review is to discuss the effects of these methods on the reproductive performance of beef cattle and their animal welfare implications.

Sexual behavior of subordinate, but not dominant, rams increases following observed sexual activity.

Sexual performance of rams does not improve after observing hetero-sexual behavior of other rams, as happens in bucks and bulls. This lack of effect might be masked by the positive and negative effects that sexual stimulation could have on dominant or subordinate rams, given that important differences have been found within both categories. Thus, the objective of the present experiment was to determine if rams' sexual behavior is modified differently in dominant (DOM) and subordinated (SUB) rams after observing the sexual behavior of each other. The dominance relationship of nine dyads of Corriedale rams was determined using a food competition test. Next, each ram was tested in two different situations; a control test (CT), and a test in which the other ram was joined with two estrous ewes in the contiguous pen (visual sexual stimulation test; VSST). Estrous ewes were placed in one pen, and each ram was located first 20 min in the contiguous pen. Then, the ram was moved into the pen with the estrous ewes, staying there for other 20 min. During the CT the ewes remained alone the first 20 min. During the VSST the other ram of the dyad was in the pen with the ewes, but it was taken out before introducing the tested ram. There were no differences in the frequency of any behavior during the 20 first min between DOM or SUB rams. The DOM rams did not modify any behavior according to the type of test. On the other hand, SUB rams increased the number of ejaculations and the ejaculation efficiency (P = 0.04 and 0.03, respectively) when tested after viewing the DOM rams, and tended (P = 0.058) to achieve their 1st ejaculation earlier in VSST test. It was concluded that while visual pre-stimulation of a SUB ram courting and mating estrous ewes had no effect on DOM rams' sexual behavior, the observation of a DOM ram, enhanced mating behavior of SUB rams. This expands the concept that DOM and SUB rams respond with different strategies to visual stimulation.

Behavioural and productive response to experimental infection with stage 3 larvae of Haemonchus contortus in feedlot bull-calves.

Haemonchus contortus is a nematode parasite that establishes in the abomasum of ruminants, it has a cosmopolitan distribution and is a worldwide health problem for livestock. As a first line of defence against parasites, behaviour can help to prevent or fight infection, and may even serve as a method of early presumptive diagnosis. Parasites can affect performance of cattle and cause significant economic losses. The aim of this study was to determine the behavioural and productive changes induced by an experimental infection with H. contortus L3 in bovines. We used 32 dewormed bull calves, randomly divided into two groups, 8 no inoculated controls and 24 that were inoculated with 4000 L3 of H. contortus. Inoculation did not influence haematocrit or haemoglobin values at 0, 28 and 42 days post infection (P> 0.20); however, an increase in the frequency of urination (P = 0.0001) and defecation (P = 0.0001), number of steps (P < 0.001) and self-grooming (P < 0.01) events were observed, even in inoculated animals in which not parasite eggs were found in faeces. During the first 28 days post-inoculation with H. contortus, feedlot performance was not affected (P = 0.16), but during the last 14 days (29-42) inoculated animals gained 15% less weight compared to controls (P = 0.04). Over 42 days, inoculated calves showed a 28% poorer feed efficiency during the 42 days post-inoculation than controls (P < 0.01). Across the experiment, calves inoculated with H. contortus obtained less net energy both for maintenance as for gain from diet (P < 0.01). It is concluded that both, performance and behaviour were modified in feedlot bull-calves parasitized by H. contortus, supporting the practice of deworming when eggs of this parasite are detected in the faeces even in low amounts.

Teaching animal welfare in veterinary schools in Latin America.

There is a high demand for a veterinary education in animal welfare (AW) with different approaches from the academic, society and trade points of view. Latin American (LA) countries members of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) are under the urge and should be obligated to teach AW. The aims of this article are to analyze the current drives of change on the importance of teaching animal welfare in LA, the competences recommended from international education organizations for the region, and to provide the contents on the curriculum in AW that a future veterinarian should achieve in the LA scenario, in other words to examine why teaching AW, what should be taught and how. Despite significant advances in introducing AW into veterinary training programs, much remains to be done regarding the future of this field in teaching veterinary science in Spain and LA countries, and in including this science as an independent course in programs at distinct levels to integrate the scientific, ethical and legal aspects of AW. This paper presents a proposal that was constructed with a view towards integrating diverse curricular approaches based on criteria, contents and concepts provided by the researchers and professors who collaborated in the book entitled: Bienestar Animal: Una Visión Global en Iberoamerica [Animal Welfare: A Global Vision in Ibero-America]. To ensure veterinary students will be better equipped to graduate with OIE day 1 competencies in AW, teaching approaches are needed that support project-based learning and gamification, critical thinking, reflection and collaborative learning.