The effect of the proportion of Modern European ancestry on grower and sow performance of pigs in smallholder systems in Uganda.

Several factors, including breed, lead to divergent performance of pigs for production and reproduction traits in different environments. A recent genomics study showed that Modern European (ME) pig breeds contribute to the ancestry of smallholder pigs in the Hoima and Kamuli districts, Uganda. These pigs were also involved in a longitudinal study with several traits recorded, including 540 body weights (WT) of 374 growing pigs, 195 records of total number of piglets born alive (TBA) of 157 sows, and 110 total number weaned (TNW) records of 94 sows. Linear mixed-effects models were used to test for the significance of environmental effects, including housing system, geographic location, and the season when the events occurred as well as animal-specific effects like age, sex, parity, and farrow-to-weaning interval. Stepwise model reduction starting from models with all main effects and pairwise interactions was applied. The final models were then expanded to include proportions of Modern European (ME) ancestry for the subset of animals genotyped, following genomic ancestry analysis based on a Porcine 50K SNP Chip. ME ancestry proportions ranged from 0.02 to 0.50 and were categorized into three classes (low/medium/high ME) based on 33.3% quantiles. The effects of ME classes on WT and TBA were not significant. ME showed a significant effect on TNW. Sows with a high proportion of ME weaned 2.4 piglets more than the low group, the medium ME group being intermediate. This study used genomic data to investigate the effects of genetic ancestry on the performance of smallholder pigs in Uganda. The proportion of Modern European ancestry did not exceed 0.50, therefore not allowing for the comparison of local versus pure "exotic" types of pigs. For the range of ancestries observed, which is the relevant one for current smallholder systems in Uganda, differences were small for the body weight of growing pigs and the number of piglets born alive, while higher proportions of ME ancestry resulted in significantly more piglets weaned. The availability of genotypes of a higher number of growing pigs would have been beneficial for drawing conclusions on the effect of ME ancestry on the growth rates of smallholder pigs in Uganda.

Economic losses associated with respiratory and helminth infections in domestic pigs in Lira district, Northern Uganda.

This study sought to quantify direct economic losses due to respiratory and gastrointestinal (GI) helminth infections in domestic pigs in Uganda. In a longitudinal study design with repeated measures, farm visits were made at 2 month intervals from October 2018 to September 2019. Weaner and grower pigs (n = 288) aged 2-6 months from 94 farms were sampled. The pigs were monitored for growth and screened for exposure to four important respiratory pathogens: porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSv), Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (M. hyo), Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) using ELISA tests. Farm management practices were recorded and used to generate management level scores. Treatment expenses incurred were recorded throughout the study. A mixed effects model was fitted to quantify effects of respiratory and helminth infections on average daily weight gains (ADGs), with farm and pig as random effects. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine differences in mean treatment costs by farm management standard. Financial losses were estimated from average carcass dressing percentage, ADG reductions during fattening (200 days). Results showed a grower pig in a given farm exposed to PRRSv and Ascaris spp. had significantly lower ADG by 17.10 gr/day and 16.80 grams/day respectively, compared to a similar unexposed pig (p < 0.05). Mean treatment costs per pig declined significantly with increase in management standard scores (MSS), from USD 1.13 per pig in MSS 1 (poor management) farms to USD 0.95 for MSS 3 (better management) farms (p < 0.05). We show that monetary losses due to PRRSv and Ascaris spp. infection amounted to USD 6.6 ± 2.7 and 6.50 ± 3.2 (Mean ± SEM) per pig, respectively during 200 days of fattening. This study strengthens evidence that improving management practices to reduce infections mitigates economic losses. To guide interventions, further studies are required to unravel the full extent of indirect economic losses.

Poultry health constraints in smallholder village poultry systems in Northern Ghana and Central Tanzania.

Introduction: Smallholder poultry production is a major contributor to food security and rural livelihoods in low-and middle-income countries. However, infectious diseases limit improvements to smallholder poultry production and performance of the sector in general. Infectious diseases of poultry, especially viral diseases, have major impacts on the health and productivity of flocks and account for significant morbidities and mortalities of birds each year. Methods: This study utilized participatory epidemiology approaches to better understand the poultry health constraints and challenges faced by smallholder poultry producers in village poultry systems in Northern Ghana and Central Tanzania. Results: The results show dominance of small-scale semi-intensive and extensive scavenging poultry production systems in the study areas. Newcastle disease ranked as the highest cause of morbidity and mortality in chickens in the two countries. The disease occurred mainly during the months coinciding with the dry season in both countries. Other health challenges among poultry flocks included worm infestation, fowl pox, coryza, and coccidiosis. Producers, especially in rural locations, had poor access to veterinary services and critical inputs necessary for poultry production. In the Northern region of Ghana, producers lacked definitive diagnoses for sick poultry due to a shortage of veterinary personnel and diagnostic laboratories. Discussion: These challenges point to the need for increased investment in poultry disease control and prevention programs, particularly in rural areas. Interventions focused on expansion of veterinary and agricultural extension services and diagnostic laboratory capacity in rural areas and increased gender-sensitive training to enhance smallholder knowledge in poultry husbandry and disease prevention measures will support the development of the smallholder village poultry systems. Tapping into the diverse genetic reservoir of local chicken ecotypes with enhanced resistance to Newcastle disease through genomic selection, coupled with models for enhancing ND vaccination supply and use in the rural areas are potential future avenues for addressing ND constraints to production.

Structure of the pork value chain in Northern Uganda: implications for Taenia solium control interventions.

Introduction: This study characterizes the pork value chain in Agago, Kitgum, Lamwo, and Pader districts of Northern Uganda and analyzes its implications on the transmission and control of Taenia solium infections. Methodology: Data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) with farmers and pig and pork traders, key informant interviews (KIIs) with local government officials and consumers, and district-level multi-stakeholder mini workshops organized in the study area. The value chain actors identified include input and services providers, pig farmers, live pig traders, pork traders, and consumers. Results: Most of the pig production, marketing and consumption was found to occur through informal channels. Pig production in this area is dominated by smallholder extensive systems, with most producers keeping less than 10 pigs. The production segment of the pig value chain is characterized by low use of inputs and services such as veterinary extension, drugs and improved feeds. Pigs scavenge for food under free-range systems and are at risk of parasitic infections such as the zoonotic helminth Taenia solium. This risk is exacerbated by the inherent contextual aspects of the study sites including low latrine coverage, open defecation, and high poverty. In addition, some respondents viewed pigs as "sanitation policemen" where they leave them to roam around and eat dirt including feaces thereby cleaning the environment. T. solium was recognized as an important pig health constraint in this value chain alongside African swine fever (ASF). Unlike ASF that was associated with the pig mortalities, the cysts were associated with rejection of pigs by traders at purchase, condemnation of pig carcasses by meat inspectors and rejection of raw pork by consumers at points of sale. Discussion: Poor organization of the value chain and lack veterinary extension and meat inspection services results in some pigs infected with T. solium entering the food chain, exposing consumers to infection with the parasite. To reduce the pig production losses and public health impact from T. solium infections, there is need for control and prevention interventions targeting specific nodes of the value chain where the risk of transmission is highest.

A farmer-friendly tool for estimation of weights of pigs kept by smallholder farmers in Uganda.

Pig keeping is important to the livelihoods of many rural Ugandans. Pigs are typically sold based on live weight or a carcass weight derived from this; however this weight is commonly estimated due to the lack of access to scales. Here, we explore the development of a weigh band for more accurate weight determination and potentially increased farmer bargaining power on sale price. Pig weights and varied body measurements (heart girth, height, and length) were collected on 764 pigs of different ages, sex, and breed types, from 157 smallholder pig keeping households in Central and Western Uganda. Mixed-effects linear regression analyses, with household as a random effect and the varied body measurements as a fixed effect, were performed to determine the best single predictor for cube root of weight (transformation of weight for normality), for 749 pigs ranging between 0 and 125 kg. The most predictive single body measurement was heart girth, where weight in kg = (0.4011 + heart girth in cm × 0.0381)3. This model was found to be most suitable for pigs between 5 and 110 kg, notably more accurate than farmers' estimates, but still with somewhat broad confidence intervals (for example, ±11.5 kg for pigs with a predicted weight of 51.3 kg). We intend to pilot test a weigh band based on this model before deciding on whether it is suitable for wider scaling.

Engaging fathers to support child nutrition increases frequency of children's animal source food consumption in Rwanda.

Although social support from fathers is associated with improved child feeding practices, evidence on feasible, acceptable, and effective ways to involve fathers in supporting child nutrition, including animal source food (ASF) consumption, is limited. This study was a follow-on to a trial that tested the effects of social and behavior change communication (SBCC) targeted mainly at mothers to promote ASF consumption by children in households that received an exotic or crossbred cow through the government of Rwanda's Girinka "One Cow Per Poor Family" program (NCT0345567). A delayed SBCC intervention was provided to mothers in the non-intervention arms prior to the present pre/post study, which targeted fathers in households across the trial study arms. Baseline and endline surveys with a cohort of 149 fathers with a child <5 years were used to evaluate the effects of a SBCC intervention for fathers on their children's ASF consumption and on fathers' knowledge, awareness, and support for children's ASF consumption. Qualitative data collected from fathers, mothers, and program implementers were used to assess feasibility and acceptability of the intervention for fathers. The SBCC intervention comprised group meetings led by model fathers, text messages, print materials, and megaphone blasts. The odds of children consuming any type of ASF ≥2 times in the last week increased from baseline to endline (OR 4.9, 95% CI 1.9, 12.3), as did the odds consuming milk, eggs, and beef, but not fish. Fathers' mean ASF knowledge and awareness scores increased from baseline to endline (knowledge: 2.3 to 3.5 out of 4 items, P<0.001; awareness: 2.5 to 3.0 out of 3 items, P<0.001), with the largest changes observed in knowledge of timing of introduction of milk and other ASFs. The percentage of fathers who offered two or more supportive actions for their children's milk and other ASF consumption increased from baseline to endline (milk: 19.5% to 31.5%, P = 0.017; other ASFs: 18.8% to 37.6%, P<0.001). Fathers appreciated gaining knowledge on child nutrition in a setting specifically for men and liked the print materials that offered clear actions they could take to support their children's ASF consumption. This study shows that an SBCC intervention for fathers can improve children's ASF consumption and increase fathers' knowledge, awareness, and support for children's nutrition.

Development of a Near-Infrared Photoacoustic System for Selective, Fast, and Fully Automatized Detection of Isotopically Labeled Ammonia.

Different environmental and industrial technologies seek for fast and automatic ammonia detection systems, capable of the selective measurement of the concentration of its isotopes at sub-ppm levels, without any interference with the common contaminants. In this work, we report the quasi-simultaneous measurement of 14NH3 and 15NH3 concentrations based on a near-infrared diode laser-based photoacoustic system. Using a widely tunable external cavity diode laser, four nearby wavelengths within the range of 1531.3-1531.8 nm were optimal circumstances for sensitive detection, while avoiding interference with water vapor. Subsequently, a more robust distributed feedback diode laser was employed to tune the laser wavelength on the sub-second timescale by varying its driving current rather than using much slower temperature tuning. The detection limit of our system is 0.15 and 0.73 ppm for 14NH3 and 15NH3 (with an accuracy below 0.1%), respectively, and the response time is 3.5 s.

Perceived effects of COVID-19 restrictions on smallholder farmers: Evidence from seven lower- and middle-income countries.

CONTEXT: The COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented global disruption and continues to wreak havoc. Dire predictions were made about the risks to smallholder farmers in lower- and middle- income, but hard data have been lacking. We present the results from 9201 interviews with smallholder farmers from seven countries. OBJECTIVE: The objectives are to describe: i) how farmers perceive the key effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and containment measures on livelihoods and food security; ii) the effects on agricultural activities; iii) the coping strategies households deployed. METHODS: Household surveys were conducted as part of ongoing monitoring programs during the latter half of 2020. Sites in seven countries were covered: Burundi; Kenya; Rwanda; Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia; and Vietnam. Findings are representative of smallholder farmers across multiple districts per country. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The effects of the COVID-19 containment measures were widespread and often perceived to be severe. Food purchase, off-farm income, sale of farm produce, and access to crop inputs were all affected. In locations under more stringent restrictions during the time of the survey, up to 80% of households had to reduce food consumption and/or variety. Almost all households with off-farm incomes reported reductions, by half on average. A half to three-quarters of households (depending on the location) with income from farm sales reported losses compared to the pre-pandemic situation. In locations with more relaxed containment measures in place during the time of the survey, less frequent and less severe economic and food security outcomes were perceived by the respondent, with around 20% of households reporting negative outcomes. Mobility restrictions, reduced market access, crashes in sale price for agricultural goods, and soaring prices for food purchase were key factors. Sale prices generally dropped for all agricultural products in any given location, and affected not only high-value perishable products, but also staple crops such as maize and cassava. Depending on the location, between 30% and 90% of the households applied coping strategies in response to the pandemic during 2020. There was an almost complete absence of official aid amongst households interviewed. SIGNIFICANCE: Our results raise the thorny issue of how best to balance containment of disease against the wellbeing of the vulnerable rural population in lower- and middle-income countries. There is a risk that the buffering capacity of rural people will become exhausted. Possible policy measures to limit negative outcomes include i) tiered mobility restrictions with travel allowed for economic reasons; ii) short-term price guarantee schemes to stabilise the food system; iii) direct aid; iv) the timely re-installation of distribution channels for agricultural inputs.

Animal Source Food Social and Behavior Change Communication Intervention Among Girinka Livestock Transfer Beneficiaries in Rwanda: A Cluster Randomized Evaluation.

Animal source foods (ASFs), including cow's milk, contain essential nutrients and contribute to a healthy diet, but frequency of intake is low among children in low- and middle-income countries. We hypothesized that an ASF social and behavior change communication (SBCC) intervention implemented by community health workers (CHWs) would increase child milk consumption and dietary diversity in households that received a cow from the Government of Rwanda's Girinka livestock transfer program. We tested the 9-month SBCC intervention among children aged 12-29 months at baseline in administrative cells randomly assigned to the intervention or control. Most mothers in the intervention group were exposed to CHWs' home visits (90.7%) or community-level activities (82.8%). At endline, more mothers in the intervention group compared with the control group knew that cow's milk was an ASF (90.1% vs. 81.7%, P=.03) and could be introduced to children at 12 months (41.7% vs. 18.7%, P<.001). More mothers in the intervention group compared with the control group knew they should feed their children ASFs (76.2% vs. 62.1%, P=.01) and give them 1 cup of cow's milk per day (20.6% vs. 7.8%, P<.001). Children's consumption of fresh cow's milk 2 or more times per week increased in the intervention group, although not significantly (8.0 percentage points, P=.17); minimum dietary diversity was unchanged. Children in the intervention group had increased odds of consuming cow's milk 2 or more times per week if their mothers recalled hearing that children should drink 1 cup of cow's milk per day during a CHW's home visit [odds ratio (OR) 2.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) (1.1, 3.9)] or a community activity [OR 2.0, 95% CI (1.2, 3.5)]. Approximately half of the children had no milk during the past week because their households produced too little or sold what was produced. In poor households receiving a livestock transfer, strategies to further tailor SBCC and increase cow's milk production may be needed to achieve larger increases in children's frequency of milk consumption.

Supply Chain and Delivery of Antimicrobial Drugs in Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Uganda.

This study assessed the veterinary drug supply chain in Uganda, the constraints faced by the actors, and how the challenges influence the use of antimicrobial (AMs) by livestock farmers. We carried out stakeholder consultation workshops, key informant interviews and a knowledge, practices, and awareness survey with actors of the veterinary drug supply chain. We also profiled drugs stored in 23 urban and peri-urban drug shops in Lira and Mukono districts to record the commonly sold drugs. The veterinary drug supply chain is made of several actors including wholesalers, retailers, Animal Health Service Providers (AHSP) and farmers. Nearly ninety per cent of drug retailers and veterinary practitioners did not receive specialized training in veterinary medicine, and most of veterinary practitioners have been in the drug business market for more than 10 years. Antibiotics and anti-helminthics were the most stocked drugs by retailers, with antibiotics ranking highest in terms of contribution to annual financial profits, accounting for 33%. The choice of a drug by veterinary practitioners was mainly informed by past success with efficacy of the drug, and financial capacity of the client (the farmer) to meet the treatment cost. Many veterinary practitioners were not conversant with veterinary drug policies of the country, with Mukono having a higher number (72%) compared to Lira (37%). Veterinary practitioners from Lira district compared to Mukono and those mainly serving small scale farmers relative to large scale smallholders were more knowledgeable about antibiotics and AMR. Several supply chain constraints were identified as potential drivers of misuse of antibiotics that could contribute to AMR. These included low level of education of supply chain actors, particularly drug retailers, poor handling of drugs at purchase and administration practices, low enforcement of policies and regulations, and lack of awareness of stakeholders about policies that regulate drug use. Thus, future interventions to reduce misuse of AM drugs in livestock production systems in Uganda such as capacity building, should also target veterinary input suppliers, and deliberately involve a strong policy advocacy component.

A Review of the Evolution of Dairy Policies and Regulations in Rwanda and Its Implications on Inputs and Services Delivery.

The dairy sector in Rwanda plays a key role in improving nutrition and generating income mostly for rural households. Despite the Rwandan 1994 genocide that left around 80% of dairy cows decimated, the dairy sector has experienced significant growth in the past two decades through government, development organisations, and donor programs, and through the nascent vibrant public-private partnership. In this paper, we reviewed and documented the evolution of the dairy policies, programs, and regulations in Rwanda and how they have contributed to the development of the dairy sector. The policy change has impacted the provision and use of inputs and services that have shaped the sector's milk production and productivity, milk quality, and demand. The results suggest that various policy- and program-level interventions have positively contributed to the growth of the dairy sector and improved the livelihoods of low-income households. This has been achieved through increased access to inputs and services, enhanced capacities of the public and private sector to deliver services, strengthened dairy cooperatives' governance, and increased value proposition to members of various farmer groups and promotion of milk consumption. We find that some of the implemented policies and programs, such as the "Girinka" (one cow per poor family) program, Rwanda Dairy Competitiveness Program II, and Rwanda Dairy Development Project, have resulted in improved farmer access to improved cow breeds and improved milk quality and cow productivity through enhanced health inputs and other services. While the dairy policies, programs, and regulations in Rwanda have paved the way for the development of the dairy sector and contributed to the provision and use of inputs and services, there are still challenges that need to be addressed. Accessibility and use of veterinary and artificial insemination services are limited by the quality of veterinary products, while the inadequate quality of feeds leads to low productivity of improved cow breeds. Consequently, farmers' uptake and use of inputs and services can be enhanced through a strengthened capacity of milk collection centres and health and animal feed policies that guide and control the quality of veterinary products and feeds sold in the markets.

A Mix of Old British and Modern European Breeds: Genomic Prediction of Breed Composition of Smallholder Pigs in Uganda.

Pig herds in Africa comprise genotypes ranging from local ecotypes to commercial breeds. Many animals are composites of these two types and the best levels of crossbreeding for particular production systems are largely unknown. These pigs are managed without structured breeding programs and inbreeding is potentially limiting. The objective of this study was to quantify ancestry contributions and inbreeding levels in a population of smallholder pigs in Uganda. The study was set in the districts of Hoima and Kamuli in Uganda and involved 422 pigs. Pig hair samples were taken from adult and growing pigs in the framework of a longitudinal study investigating productivity and profitability of smallholder pig production. The samples were genotyped using the porcine GeneSeek Genomic Profiler (GGP) 50K SNP Chip. The SNP data was analyzed to infer breed ancestry and autozygosity of the Uganda pigs. The results showed that exotic breeds (modern European and old British) contributed an average of 22.8% with a range of 2-50% while "local" blood contributed 69.2% (36.9-95.2%) to the ancestry of the pigs. Runs of homozygosity (ROH) greater than 2 megabase (Mb) quantified the average genomic inbreeding coefficient of the pigs as 0.043. The scarcity of long ROH indicated low recent inbreeding. We conclude that the genomic background of the pig population in the study is a mix of old British and modern pig ancestries. Best levels of admixture for smallholder pigs are yet to be determined, by linking genotypes and phenotypic records.

Digital Extension Interactive Voice Response (IVR) mLearning: Lessons Learnt From Uganda Pig Value Chain.

We assessed the effectiveness of Interactive Voice Response (IVR) technology in delivering biosecurity messages for the control of African swine fever (ASF) in Uganda using a randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 408 smallholder pig farmers. Our results show that IVR technology significantly improved knowledge of farmers who had not been exposed to training on biosecurity. Furthermore, it enhanced knowledge for farmers who had received face-to-face (f2f) training in biosecurity. This group of farmers recorded the highest knowledge gain following IVR training compared to farmers who did not receive f2f training. IVR technology was perceived by farmers as a new technology capable of transforming their lives because it is time efficient, has high potential for resource saving and flexibility. IVR also seems to be gender sensitive as it addresses some of the constraints women face in accessing conventional extension services such as time. IVR is an innovative way for delivery of advisory information to pig farmers. The scalability of IVR technology could further be explored and its feasibility assessed for wider use by the extension systems in Uganda and elsewhere.

Strategies to Upgrade Animal Health Delivery in Village Poultry Systems: Perspectives of Stakeholders From Northern Ghana and Central Zones in Tanzania.

Village chicken production holds much potential for the alleviation of malnutrition and poverty in rural communities in Africa. Owing to their subsistence nature, however, such systems are rife with infectious poultry diseases such as Newcastle disease (ND). Strategies common for the management of ND and other poultry diseases in intensive production systems, including vaccination and biosecurity measures, have seen limited success in the village production systems. New approaches are needed that can successfully deliver animal health inputs and services for the effective management of poultry health challenges in low-input systems. Our study utilized focus group discussions with men and women farmers as well as other poultry value chain actors such as input suppliers, live bird traders and processed poultry meat retailers, to investigate potential options for delivery of animal health care to village poultry systems in northern Ghana and central Tanzania. ND was commonly reported as a major disease constraint in the study sites of the two countries, with resulting fatalities particularly impactful on men and women producers and on traders. We therefore also conducted interviews that focused specifically on the gender component of village chicken production. The key health related challenges prioritized by women and men participants included limited access to, and poor quality of, vaccines and veterinary drugs, a shortage of veterinary officers, and insufficient knowledge and training of farmers on flock management practices. Women, more than men, emphasized the difficulties of accessing poultry health services. Our assessments suggest that for poultry health care delivery in the studied communities to be effective, there is need to improve the supply of good quality drugs and vaccines in rural areas, respond to the needs of both men and women, and recognize the different incentives for farmers, traders and other value chain actors. Community-based approaches and increased use of ICT technology such as mobile phones have much to offer in this regard.

Demand for Taenia solium Cysticercosis Vaccine: Lessons and Insights From the Pig Production and Trading Nodes of the Uganda Pig Value Chain.

Taenia solium cysticercosis disease remains a key challenge to the pig sector in low- and middle-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and South East Asia, resulting in both economic losses and public health impacts. The World Health Organization has ranked it first on the global scale of foodborne parasites. A One Health approach has been recommended for reduction of infection pressure and eradication in the longer term. A new vaccine TSOL18 (Cysvax™), applied in combination with oxfendazole (Paranthic 10%™), a dewormer drug has been developed and field tested for the control of T. solium cysticercosis, with high potential to break the disease cycle. It is however unclear whether the products can be marketed through a market driven approach, and if smallholder pig farmers would be willing to take up and pay for the vaccine-oxfendazole combination. A choice experiment methodology was used to assess the potential demand and willingness to pay for the vaccine-oxfendazole combination by Ugandan smallholder pig farmers, and demand for vaccinated pigs by pig traders. The results showed that farmers highly valued quality assurance attributes and were not keen on the vaccine if there were no associated returns in the form of premium price for vaccinated pigs during sales. They were willing to pay US$ 2.31 for the vaccine if it resulted in a premium price for vaccinated pigs. Furthermore, they preferred an accompanying vaccine viability detector as part of its quality assurance. The pig traders on the other hand preferred high carcass weight of pigs, potentially achieved by using oxfendazole. The results show that unless the pig market systems pay a premium price for vaccinated pigs, and quality assurance systems guarantee quality vaccine, uptake of the TSOL18 vaccine and oxfendazole by farmers through market mechanisms may be unsuccessful. The current pig marketing system does not reward food safety, the focus is mainly on carcass weight. Alternative delivery mechanisms for the vaccine through a mix of private-public investments needs to be explored, as the benefits of vaccinated pigs are societal and include reduction and elimination of neurocysticercosis in the long run.

Impact of participatory training of smallholder pig farmers on knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding biosecurity for the control of African swine fever in Uganda.

We evaluated the impact of a participatory training of pig farmers on knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of biosecurity relating to ASF control in two districts of Uganda using a randomized control trial (RCT). A total of 830 pig farmers from 32 villages were included in the study, with 425 farmers receiving training, while 405 did not. An item response theory model was used to assess the impact of the training on farmer's KAP. Logistic regression models were used to assess the factors that affected knowledge gain and change in attitude and practices after training. Focus group discussions (FGD) were carried out with selected farmers from the treatment group at the end of the intervention, to share their experiences and discuss potential factors that could hinder adoption of biosecurity in their communities. Results of the regression analyses showed that there was a significant effect of biosecurity training (p = .038) on gain in knowledge after 12 months, but there were limited changes in farmer's attitude and practice at 12 and 28 months after training. Pig production domain (peri-urban/urban production), group membership, gender (male) and education of the farmer positively influenced knowledge gain and attitude of farmers towards biosecurity. This paper provides empirical evidence on the impact of training intervention on biosecurity practices for disease prevention or control. In addition, it breaks down the components of the biosecurity practices and documents the specific challenges to its uptake by the farmers. It therefore relaxes the assumption of knowledge constraint as a barrier to uptake. The results clearly show that knowledge is not the binding constraint to uptake of the biosecurity interventions.

African swine fever control and market integration in Ugandan peri-urban smallholder pig value chains: An ex-ante impact assessment of interventions and their interaction.

Pig production in peri-urban smallholder value chains in Uganda is severely constrained by impact of disease, particularly African swine fever (ASF), and the economic consequences of an inefficient pig value chain. Interventions in the form of biosecurity to control ASF disease outbreaks and pig business hub models to better link smallholder farmers to pig markets have the potential to address the constraints. However, there is a dearth of evidence of the effects of the interventions on performance and distribution of outcomes along the pig value chain. An ex-ante impact assessment utilising System Dynamics model was used to assess the impact of the interventions in peri-urban pig value chains in Masaka district. The results showed that although implementation of biosecurity interventions results in reduction of ASF outbreaks, it also leads to a 6.3% reduction in farmer profit margins per year but more than 7% increase in other value chain actors' margins. The pig business hub intervention alone results in positive margins for all value chain actors but minimal reduction in ASF outbreaks. When biosecurity and the pig business hub interventions are implemented together, the interaction effects of the interventions result in positive outcomes for both the control of ASF and improvement in farmers' margins. Farmers may therefore be unwilling to adopt biosecurity practices if implemented alone to control ASF outbreaks unless there is a corresponding financial incentive to compensate for the high costs. This has implications for policy or developing institutions to facilitate cost sharing arrangement among chain actors and/or third party subsidy to provide incentives for producers to adopt biosecurity measures.

Quantitative assessment of social and economic impact of African swine fever outbreaks in northern Uganda.

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most important pig diseases, causing high case fatality rate and trade restrictions upon reported outbreaks. In Uganda, a low-income country with the largest pig population in East Africa, ASF is endemic. Animal disease impact is multidimensional and include social and economic impact along the value chain. In low-income settings, this impact keep people poor and push those that have managed to escape poverty back again. If the diseases can be controlled, their negative consequences can be mitigated. However, to successfully argue for investment in disease control, its cost-benefits need to be demonstrated. One part in the cost-benefit equations is disease impact quantification. The objective of this study was therefore to investigate the socio-economic impact of ASF outbreaks at household level in northern Uganda. In a longitudinal study, structured interviews with two hundred, randomly selected, pig-keeping households were undertaken three times with a six month interval. Questions related to family and pig herd demographics, pig trade and pig business. Associations between ASF outbreaks and economic and social impact variables were evaluated using linear regression models. The study showed that pigs were kept in extreme low-input-low-output farming systems involving only small monetary investments. Yearly incidence of ASF on household level was 19%. Increasing herd size was positively associated with higher economic output. The interaction between ASF outbreaks and the herd size showed that ASF outbreaks were negatively associated with economic output at the second interview occasion and with one out of two economic impact variables at the third interview occasion. No significant associations between the social impact variables included in the study and ASF outbreaks could be established. Trade and consumption of sick and dead pigs were coping strategies used to minimize losses of capital and animal protein. The results indicate that causality of social and economic impact of ASF outbreaks in smallholder systems is complex. Pigs are mostly kept as passive investments rather than active working capital, complicating economic analyses and further disqualifying disease control arguments based only on standard economic models.

Qualitative analysis of the risks and practices associated with the spread of African swine fever within the smallholder pig value chains in Uganda.

A study was undertaken between September 2014 and December 2014 to assess the perceptions of smallholder pig value chain actors of the risks and practices associated with the spread of African swine fever (ASF) disease within the pig value chains. Data was collected from 136 value chain actors and 36 key informants through 17 group discussions and two key informant interview (KII) sessions respectively using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools. Results from this study revealed that according to value chain actors and stakeholders, the transporting, slaughtering, and collecting/bulking nodes represent the highest risk, followed by the inputs and services (feeds and drugs) supply nodes. The processing, whole sale and consumption nodes represented the lowest risk. Value chain actors are aware of the disease and its consequences to the pig industry, however biosecurity measures are poorly implemented at all nodes. As for the causes, value chain actors pointed to several factors, such as inadequate knowledge of mechanisms for the spread of the disease, poor enforcement of regulations on disease control, and low capacities of actors to implement biosecurity measures, amongst others. Although traders, butchers and veterinary practitioners accepted that they played an important role in the spread of the virus, they did not perceive themselves as key actors in the control of the disease; instead, they believed that only farmers should adopt biosecurity measures on their farms because they keep the pigs for a longer period. Most of the recommendations given by the value chain actors for controlling and preventing ASF disease were short term, and targeted mainly pig producers. These recommendations included: the establishment of live pig collection centres so that traders and brokers do not have to directly access pig farms, capacity building of value chain actors on application of biosecurity, enactment and enforcement of by-laws on live pig movements and establishment of operational outbreak reporting mechanism at district level. Long term recommendations included the development of a vaccine, as well as pen-side diagnostic tests. This study suggests that interventions to control ASF disease through application of biosecurity measures should target all value chain nodes, while putting more emphasis on post-farm nodes especially the trading.

Risk factors associated with occurrence of African swine fever outbreaks in smallholder pig farms in four districts along the Uganda-Kenya border.

A cross-sectional survey was carried out to assess risk factors associated with occurrence of African swine fever (ASF) outbreaks in smallholder pig farms in four districts along Kenya-Uganda border. Information was collected by administering questionnaires to 642 randomly selected pig households in the study area. The study showed that the major risk factors that influenced ASF occurrence were purchase of pigs in the previous year (p < 0.000) and feeding of pigs with swill (p < 0.024). By employing cluster analysis, three clusters of pig production types were identified based on production characteristics that were found to differ significantly between districts. The most vulnerable cluster to ASF was households with the highest reported number of ASF outbreaks and composed of those that practiced free range at least some of the time. The majority of the households in this cluster were from Busia district in Uganda. On the other hand, the least vulnerable cluster to ASF composed of households that had the least number of pig purchases, minimal swill feeding, and less treatment for internal and external parasites. The largest proportion of households in this cluster was from Busia district Kenya. The study recommended the need to sensitize farmers to adopt proper biosecurity practices such as total confinement of pigs, treatment of swill, isolation of newly purchased pigs for at least 2 weeks, and provision of incentives for farmers to report suspected outbreaks to authorities and rapid confirmation of outbreaks.