Chandelier Cartridge Density Is Reduced in the Prefrontal Cortex in Autism.

An alteration in the balance of excitation-inhibition has been proposed as a common characteristic of the cerebral cortex in autism, which may be due to an alteration in the number and/or function of the excitatory and/or inhibitory cells that form the cortical circuitry. We previously found a decreased number of the parvalbumin (PV)+ interneuron known as Chandelier (Ch) cell in the prefrontal cortex in autism. This decrease could result from a decreased number of Ch cells, but also from decreased PV protein expression by Ch cells. To further determine if Ch cell number is altered in autism, we quantified the number of Ch cells following a different approach and different patient cohort than in our previous studies. We quantified the number of Ch cell cartridges-rather than Ch cell somata-that expressed GAT1-rather than PV. Specifically, we quantified GAT1+ cartridges in prefrontal areas BA9, BA46, and BA47 of 11 cases with autism and 11 control cases. We found that the density of GAT1+ cartridges was decreased in autism in all areas and layers. Whether this alteration is cause or effect remains unclear but could result from alterations that take place during cortical prenatal and/or postnatal development.

Detection of all four dengue serotypes in Aedes aegypti female mosquitoes collected in a rural area in Colombia.

The Aedes aegypti vector for dengue virus (DENV) has been reported in urban and periurban areas. The information about DENV circulation in mosquitoes in Colombian rural areas is limited, so we aimed to evaluate the presence of DENV in Ae. aegypti females caught in rural locations of two Colombian municipalities, Anapoima and La Mesa. Mosquitoes from 497 rural households in 44 different rural settlements were collected. Pools of about 20 Ae. aegypti females were processed for DENV serotype detection. DENV in mosquitoes was detected in 74% of the analysed settlements with a pool positivity rate of 62%. The estimated individual mosquito infection rate was 4.12% and the minimum infection rate was 33.3/1,000 mosquitoes. All four serotypes were detected; the most frequent being DENV-2 (50%) and DENV-1 (35%). Two-three serotypes were detected simultaneously in separate pools. This is the first report on the co-occurrence of natural DENV infection of mosquitoes in Colombian rural areas. The findings are important for understanding dengue transmission and planning control strategies. A potential latent virus reservoir in rural areas could spill over to urban areas during population movements. Detecting DENV in wild-caught adult mosquitoes should be included in the development of dengue epidemic forecasting models.

Detection of all four dengue serotypes in Aedes aegypti female mosquitoes collected in a rural area in Colombia

The Aedes aegypti vector for dengue virus (DENV) has been reported in urban and periurban areas. The information about DENV circulation in mosquitoes in Colombian rural areas is limited, so we aimed to evaluate the presence of DENV in Ae. aegypti females caught in rural locations of two Colombian municipalities, Anapoima and La Mesa. Mosquitoes from 497 rural households in 44 different rural settlements were collected. Pools of about 20 Ae. aegypti females were processed for DENV serotype detection. DENV in mosquitoes was detected in 74% of the analysed settlements with a pool positivity rate of 62%. The estimated individual mosquito infection rate was 4.12% and the minimum infection rate was 33.3/1,000 mosquitoes. All four serotypes were detected; the most frequent being DENV-2 (50%) and DENV-1 (35%). Two-three serotypes were detected simultaneously in separate pools. This is the first report on the co-occurrence of natural DENV infection of mosquitoes in Colombian rural areas. The findings are important for understanding dengue transmission and planning control strategies. A potential latent virus reservoir in rural areas could spill over to urban areas during population movements. Detecting DENV in wild-caught adult mosquitoes should be included in the development of dengue epidemic forecasting models.

The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism impairs synaptic transmission and plasticity in the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex.

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism is a common human single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that affects the regulated release of BDNF, and has been implicated in affective disorders and cognitive dysfunction. A decreased activation of the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex (IL-mPFC), a brain region critical for the regulation of affective behaviors, has been described in BDNF(Met) carriers. However, it is unclear whether and how the Val66Met polymorphism affects the IL-mPFC synapses. Here, we report that spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) was absent in the IL-mPFC pyramidal neurons from BDNF(Met/Met) mice, a mouse that recapitulates the specific phenotypic properties of the human BDNF Val66Met polymorphism. Also, we observed a decrease in NMDA and GABA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in the pyramidal neurons of BDNF(Met/Met) mice. While BDNF enhanced non-NMDA receptor transmission and depressed GABA receptor transmission in the wild-type mice, both effects were absent in BDNF(Met/Met) mice after BDNF treatment. Indeed, exogenous BDNF reversed the deficits in STDP and NMDA receptor transmission in BDNF(Met/Met) neurons. BDNF-mediated selective reversal of the deficit in plasticity and NMDA receptor transmission, but its lack of effect on GABA and non-NMDA receptor transmission in BDNF(Met/Met) mice, suggests separate mechanisms of Val66Met polymorphism upon synaptic transmission. The effect of the Val66Met polymorphism on synaptic transmission and plasticity in the IL-mPFC represents a mechanism to account for this impact of SNP on affective disorders and cognitive dysfunction.

The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism impairs NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.

The Val66Met polymorphism in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene results in a defect in regulated release of BDNF and affects episodic memory and affective behaviors. However, the precise role of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism in hippocampal synaptic transmission and plasticity has not yet been studied. Therefore, we examined synaptic properties in the hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses of BDNF(Met/Met) mice and matched wild-type mice. Although basal glutamatergic neurotransmission was normal, both young and adult mice showed a significant reduction in NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation. We also found that NMDA receptor-dependent long-term depression was decreased in BDNF(Met/Met) mice. However, mGluR-dependent long-term depression was not affected by the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism. Consistent with the NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity impairment, we observed a significant decrease in NMDA receptor neurotransmission in the CA1 pyramidal neurons of BDNF(Met/Met) mice. Thus, these results show that the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism has a direct effect on NMDA receptor transmission, which may account for changes in synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.

Cytotoxicity of local anesthetics in human neuronal cells.

BACKGROUND: In addition to inhibiting the excitation conduction process in peripheral nerves, local anesthetics (LAs) cause toxic effects on the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, neuromuscular junction, and cell metabolism. Different postoperative neurological complications are ascribed to the cytotoxicity of LAs, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Because the clinical concentrations of LAs far exceed their EC(50) for inhibiting ion channel activity, ion channel block alone might not be sufficient to explain LA-induced cell death. However, it may contribute to cell death in combination with other actions. In this study, we compared the cytotoxicity of six frequently used LAs and will discuss the possible mechanism(s) underlying their toxicity. METHODS: In human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, viability upon exposure to six LAs (bupivacaine, ropivacaine, mepivacaine, lidocaine, procaine, and chloroprocaine) was quantitatively determined by the MTT-(3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetra-odium bromide) colorimetry assay and qualitatively confirmed by fluorescence imaging, using the LIVE/DEAD assay reagents (calcein/AM and ethidium homodimer-1). In addition, apoptotic activity was assessed by measuring the activation of caspase-3/-7 by imaging using a fluorescent caspase inhibitor (FLICA). Furthermore, LA effects on depolarization- and carbachol-stimulated intracellular Ca(2+)-responses were also evaluated. RESULTS: 1) After a 10-min treatment, all six LAs decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent fashion. Their killing potency was procaine < or = mepivacaine < lidocaine < chloroprocaine < ropivacaine < bupivacaine (based on LD(50), the concentration at which 50% of cells were dead). Among these six LAs, only bupivacaine and lidocaine killed all cells with increasing concentration. 2) Both bupivacaine and lidocaine activated caspase-3/-7. Caspase activation required higher levels of lidocaine than bupivacaine. Moreover, the caspase activation by bupivacaine was slower than by lidocaine. Lidocaine at high concentrations caused an immediate caspase activation, but did not cause significant caspase activation at concentrations lower than 10 mM. 3) Procaine and chloroprocaine concentration-dependently inhibited the cytosolic Ca(2+)-response evoked by depolarization or receptor-activation in a similar manner as a previous observation made with bupivacaine, ropivacaine, mepivacaine, and lidocaine. None of the LAs caused a significant increase in the basal and Ca(2+)-evoked cytosolic Ca(2+)-level. CONCLUSION: LAs can cause rapid cell death, which is primarily due to necrosis. Lidocaine and bupivacaine can trigger apoptosis with either increased time of exposure or increased concentration. These effects might be related to postoperative neurologic injury. Lidocaine, linked to the highest incidence of transient neurological symptoms, was not the most toxic LA, whereas bupivacaine, a drug causing a very low incidence of transient neurological symptoms, was the most toxic LA in our cell model. This suggests that cytotoxicity-induced nerve injury might have different mechanisms for different LAs and different target(s) other than neurons.

Ultrastructural description of rabies virus infection in cultured sensory neurons.

Primary cultures were made from adult mouse spinal ganglia for depicting an ultrastructural description of rabies virus (RABV) infection in adult mouse sensory neuron cultures; they were infected with rabies virus for 24, 36, and 48 h. The monolayers were processed for transmission electron microscopy and immunochemistry studies at the end of each period. As previously reported, sensory neurons showed great susceptibility to infection by RABV; however, in none of the periods evaluated were assembled virions observed in the cytoplasm or seen to be associated with the cytoplasmic membrane. Instead, fibril matrices of aggregated ribonucleoprotein were detected in the cytoplasm. When infected culture lysate were inoculated into normal animals via intra-cerebral route it was observed that these animals developed clinical symptoms characteristic of infection and transmission electron microscopy revealed assembled virions in the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain. Sensory neurons infected in vitro by RABV produced a large amount of unassembled viral ribonucleoprotein. However, this intracellular material was able to produce infection and virions on being intra-cerebrally inoculated. It can thus be suggested that the lack of intracellular assembly in sensory neurons forms part of an efficient dissemination strategy.

Ultrastructural description of rabies virus infection in cultured sensory neurons

Primary cultures were made from adult mouse spinal ganglia for depicting an ultrastructural description of rabies virus (RABV) infection in adult mouse sensory neuron cultures; they were infected with rabies virus for 24, 36, and 48 h. The monolayers were processed for transmission electron microscopy and immunochemistry studies at the end of each period. As previously reported, sensory neurons showed great susceptibility to infection by RABV; however, in none of the periods evaluated were assembled virions observed in the cytoplasm or seen to be associated with the cytoplasmic membrane. Instead, fibril matrices of aggregated ribonucleoprotein were detected in the cytoplasm. When infected culture lysate were inoculated into normal animals via intra-cerebral route it was observed that these animals developed clinical symptoms characteristic of infection and transmission electron microscopy revealed assembled virions in the cerebral cortex and other areas of the brain. Sensory neurons infected in vitro by RABV produced a large amount of unassembled viral ribonucleoprotein. However, this intracellular material was able to produce infection and virions on being intra-cerebrally inoculated. It can thus be suggested that the lack of intracellular assembly in sensory neurons forms part of an efficient dissemination strategy.