ABSTRACT
Follistatins are extracellular inhibitors of the TGF-ß family ligands including activin A, myostatin and bone morphogenetic proteins. Follistatin-like 3 (FSTL3) is a potent inhibitor of activin signalling and antagonises the cardioprotective role of activin A in the heart. FSTL3 expression is elevated in patients with heart failure and is upregulated in cardiomyocytes by hypertrophic stimuli, but its role in cardiac remodelling is largely unknown. Here, we show that the production of FSTL3 by cardiomyocytes contributes to the paracrine activation of cardiac fibroblasts, inducing changes in cell adhesion, promoting proliferation and increasing collagen production. We found that FSTL3 is necessary for this response and for the induction of cardiac fibrosis. However, full activation requires additional factors, and we identify connective tissue growth factor as a FSTL3 binding partner in this process. Together, our data unveil a novel mechanism of paracrine communication between cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts that may provide potential as a therapeutic target in heart remodelling.
Subject(s)
Fibroblasts/metabolism , Follistatin-Related Proteins/metabolism , Myocytes, Cardiac/metabolism , Paracrine Communication , Proteins/metabolism , Animals , Cell Adhesion , Cell Proliferation , Cells, Cultured , Coculture Techniques , Collagen/metabolism , Connective Tissue Growth Factor/metabolism , Disease Models, Animal , Fibroblasts/pathology , Fibrosis , Follistatin-Related Proteins/deficiency , Follistatin-Related Proteins/genetics , Gene Expression Regulation , Heart Failure/metabolism , Heart Failure/pathology , Humans , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Myocytes, Cardiac/pathology , Proteins/genetics , Rats , Signal Transduction , Time FactorsABSTRACT
Transforming growth factor-ß family cytokines have diverse actions in the maintenance of cardiac homeostasis. Follistatin-like 3 (Fstl3) is an extracellular regulator of certain TGF-ß family members, including activin A. The aim of this study was to examine the role of Fstl3 in cardiac hypertrophy. Cardiac myocyte-specific Fstl3 knock-out (KO) mice and control mice were subjected to pressure overload induced by transverse aortic constriction (TAC). Cardiac hypertrophy was assessed by echocardiography and histological and biochemical methods. KO mice showed reduced cardiac hypertrophy, pulmonary congestion, concentric LV wall thickness, LV dilatation, and LV systolic dysfunction after TAC compared with control mice. KO mice displayed attenuated increases in cardiomyocyte cell surface area and interstitial fibrosis following pressure overload. Although activin A was similarly up-regulated in KO and control mice after TAC, a significant increase in Smad2 phosphorylation only occurred in KO mice. Knockdown of Fstl3 in cultured cardiomyocytes inhibited PE-induced cardiac hypertrophy. Conversely, adenovirus-mediated Fstl3 overexpression blocked the inhibitory action of activin A on hypertrophy and Smad2 activation. Transduction with Smad7, a negative regulator of Smad2 signaling, blocked the antihypertrophic actions of activin A stimulation or Fstl3 ablation. These findings identify Fstl3 as a stress-induced regulator of hypertrophy that controls myocyte size via regulation of Smad signaling.
Subject(s)
Cardiomegaly/metabolism , Myocytes, Cardiac/metabolism , Proteins/metabolism , Signal Transduction , Stress, Physiological , Animals , Cardiomegaly/genetics , Cardiomegaly/pathology , Cells, Cultured , Follistatin-Related Proteins , Gene Knockdown Techniques , Inhibin-beta Subunits/genetics , Inhibin-beta Subunits/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Myocytes, Cardiac/pathology , Organ Specificity , Proteins/genetics , Rats , Smad2 Protein/genetics , Smad2 Protein/metabolism , Smad7 Protein/genetics , Smad7 Protein/metabolism , Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/genetics , Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/metabolism , Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/pathologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Transforming growth factor-beta family cytokines have diverse actions in the maintenance of cardiac homeostasis. Activin A is a member of this family whose regulation and function in heart are not well understood at a molecular level. Follistatin-like 3 (Fstl3) is an extracellular regulator of activin A protein, and its function in the heart is also unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: We analyzed the expression of various transforming growth factor-beta superfamily cytokines and their binding partners in mouse heart. Activin betaA and Fstl3 were upregulated in models of myocardial injury. Overexpression of activin A with an adenoviral vector (Ad-actbetaA) or treatment with recombinant activin A protein protected cultured myocytes from hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced apoptosis. Systemic overexpression of activin A in mice by intravenous injection of Ad-actbetaA protected hearts from ischemia/reperfusion injury. Activin A induced the expression of Bcl-2, and ablation of Bcl-2 by small interfering RNA abrogated its protective action in myocytes. The protective effect of activin A on cultured myocytes was abolished by treatment with Fstl3 or by a pharmacological activin receptor-like kinase inhibitor. Cardiac-specific Fstl3 knockout mice showed significantly smaller infarcts after ischemia/reperfusion injury that was accompanied by reduced apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS: Activin A and Fstl3 are induced in heart by myocardial stress. Activin A protects myocytes from death, and this activity is antagonized by Fstl3. Thus, the relative expression levels of these factors after injury is a determinant of cell survival in the heart.
Subject(s)
Activins/metabolism , Follistatin-Related Proteins/metabolism , Myocardial Ischemia/etiology , Myocardium/metabolism , Activin Receptors/pharmacology , Activins/administration & dosage , Activins/antagonists & inhibitors , Activins/genetics , Animals , Animals, Newborn , Apoptosis/drug effects , Cell Hypoxia , Cell Survival , Cells, Cultured , Coronary Vessels , Disease Susceptibility , Follistatin-Related Proteins/genetics , Follistatin-Related Proteins/pharmacology , Gene Transfer Techniques , Heart Ventricles , Injections, Intravenous , Ligation , Male , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Myocardial Infarction/metabolism , Myocardial Reperfusion Injury/prevention & control , Myocytes, Cardiac/drug effects , Myocytes, Cardiac/metabolism , Oxygen/pharmacology , Rats , Recombinant Proteins/administration & dosage , Up-RegulationABSTRACT
Follistatins play roles in diverse biological processes including cell proliferation, wound healing, inflammation, and skeletal muscle growth, yet their role in the heart is currently unknown. We have investigated the myocardial expression profile and cellular distribution of follistatin (FST) and the FST-like genes FSTL1 and FSTL3 in the normal and failing heart. Expression was further analyzed in the novel setting of recovery from heart failure in myocardium obtained from patients who received combined mechanical (left ventricular assist device) and pharmacological therapy. Real-time PCR revealed that FSTL1 and FSTL3 expression was elevated in heart failure but returned to normal after recovery. FSTL3 expression levels correlated with molecular markers of disease severity and FSTL1 with the endothelial cell marker CD31, suggesting a potential link with vascularization. FSTL1 levels before treatment correlated with cardiac function after recovery, suggesting initial levels may influence long-term outcome. Immunohistochemistry revealed that FST was primarily localized to fibroblasts and vascular endothelium within the heart, whereas FSTL1 was localized to myocytes, endothelium, and smooth muscle cells and FSLT3 to myocytes and endothelium. Microarray analysis revealed that FST and FSTL1 were associated with extracellular matrix-related and calcium-binding proteins, whereas FSTL3 was associated mainly with cell signaling and transcription. These data show for the first time that elevated myocardial expression of FST-like genes is a feature of heart failure and may be linked to both disease severity and mechanisms underlying recovery, revealing new insight into the pathogenesis of heart failure and offering novel therapeutic targets.