Knockdown of type 2 orexin receptor in adult mouse testis potentiates testosterone production and germ cell proliferation.

Orexins (OXs) are neuropeptides which regulate various physiological processes. OXs exist in two different forms, mainly orexin A (OXA) and orexin B (OXB) and their effects are mediated via OX1R and OX2R. Presence of OXB and OX2R in mouse testis is also reported. However, the role of OXB/OX2R in the male gonad remains unexplored. Herein we investigated the role of OXB/OX2R system in testicular physiology under in vivo and ex vivo conditions. Adult mice were given a single dose of bilateral intratesticular injection of siRNA targeting OX2R and were sacrificed 96 h post-injection. OX2R-knockdown potentiated serum and intratesticular testosterone levels with up-regulation in the expressions of major steroidogenic proteins. Germ cell proliferation also increased in siRNA-treated mice. Results of the ex vivo experiment also supported the findings of the in vivo study. In conclusion, OX2R may regulate testosterone production and thereby control the fine-tuning between steroidogenesis and germ cell dynamics.

Mechanistic Evaluation of miRNAs and Their Targeted Genes in the Pathogenesis and Therapeutics of Parkinson's Disease.

MicroRNA (miRNA) are usually 18-25 nucleotides long non-coding RNA targeting post-transcriptional regulation of genes involved in various biological processes. The function of miRNA is essential for maintaining a homeostatic cellular condition, regulating autophagy, cellular motility, and inflammation. Dysregulation of miRNA is responsible for multiple disorders, including neurodegeneration, which has emerged as a severe problem in recent times and has verified itself as a life-threatening condition that can be understood by the continuous destruction of neurons affecting various cognitive and motor functions. Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common, permanently debilitating neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's, mainly characterized by uncontrolled tremor, stiffness, bradykinesia or akinesia (slowness in movement), and post-traumatic stress disorder. PD is mainly caused by the demolition of the primary dopamine neurotransmitter secretory cells and dopaminergic or dopamine secretory neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of the midbrain, which are majorly responsible for motor functions. In this study, a systematic evaluation of research articles from year 2017 to 2022 was performed on multiple search engines, and lists of miRNA being dysregulated in PD in different body components were generated. This study highlighted miR-7, miR-124, miR-29 family, and miR-425, showing altered expression levels during PD's progression, further regulating the expression of multiple genes responsible for PD.

An artificial-restriction fragment length polymorphism (A-RFLP) method for genotyping intronic SNP rs7587633 C/T of ATG16L1.

SNPs could either cause a disorder or directly alter the efficacy of a particular treatment and act as biological markers. The SNP rs7587633 C/T present in the intronic region of the ATG16L1 gene has been studied for its role in psoriasis vulgaris and Palmoplantar pustulosis. To genotype rs7587633 C/T using PCR-RFLP no restriction site is present for any of the restriction enzymes at the SNP position. To develop an artificial-RFLP method for genotyping rs7587633 C/T, the forward primer was designed in such a way that it resulted in the creation of an EcoRI restriction site in the amplified product which could further be digested with EcoRI to find the genotype of the individual. The newly developed A-RFLP method was applied to genotype the SNP rs7587633 C/T in DNA samples of 100 healthy control individuals. The allelic and genotypic frequencies of the SNPs were 0.80(C), 0.20(T) and 65%(CC), 31%(CT) and 4%(TT), respectively. In conclusion, we developed an A-RFLP method to genotype the SNP rs7587633 C/T which is not present in any of the natural restriction sites and this method could be applied to genotype this SNP in various populations/diseases to find its role.

Mutagenic primer-based novel multiplex PCR-RFLP technique to genotype BECN1 SNPs rs10512488 and rs11552192.

BACKGROUND: Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in candidate autophagy gene BECN1 could influence its functions thereby autophagy process. BECN1 noncoding SNPs were found to be significantly associated with neurodegenerative disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. This study aimed to develop a simultaneous genotyping technique for two BECN1 SNPs (rs10512488 and rs11552192). METHODS: A mutagenic primer-based approach was used to introduce a NdeI restriction site to genotype rs10512488 by Artificial-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (A-RFLP) along with rs11552192 by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-RFLP. Multiplexing PCR and restriction digestion reactions were set up for simultaneous genotyping of both SNPs in 100 healthy individuals. Genotypic and allele frequencies were manually calculated, and the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium was assessed using the chi-square test. RESULTS: We successfully developed PCR and RFLP conditions for the amplification and restriction digestion of both SNPs within the same tube for genotyping. The results of genotyping by newly developed multiplexing PCR-RFLP technique were concordant with the genotypes obtained by Sanger sequencing of samples. Allelic frequencies of rs10512488 obtained were 0.15 (A) and 0.85 (G), whereas allelic frequencies of rs11552192 were 0.16 (T) and 0.84 (A). CONCLUSION: The newly developed technique is rapid, cost-effective and time-saving for large-scale applications compared to sequencing methods and would play an important role in low-income settings. For the first time, allelic frequencies of rs10512488 and rs11552192 were reported among the North Indian population.

Autophagy related gene 5 polymorphism rs17587319 (C/G) in asthmatic patients in North Indian population.

Objective: Genetic background and environmental stimuli play an important role in asthma, which is an individual's hyper-responsiveness to these stimuli leading to airway inflammation. Autophagy Related Gene 5 (ATG5) plays a critical role in the autophagy pathway and has been shown to be involved in asthma. The genetic polymorphisms in the ATG5 have been reported to predispose individuals to asthma. The role of single nucleotide polymorphism rs17587319 (C/G) of ATG5 in asthma has not been studied so far.Materials and methods: In this study, we in silico analysed rs17587319 (C/G) using web-based tools Human Splice Finder (HSF) and RegulomeDB and further a case-control study was conducted that included 187 blood samples (94 asthmatic and 93 healthy controls).Results: In silico analysis suggested alteration of splicing signals by this intronic variant. The samples were genotyped by applying the PCR-RFLP method. The MAF obtained was 0.022 and 0.043 in healthy controls and asthmatic individuals, respectively. The statistical analysis revealed no association (allelic model, OR = 2.02, 95%CI = 0.59-6.83, p = 0.25; co-dominant model, OR = 2.06, 95%CI = 0.6-7.12, p = 0.24) of rs17587319 (C/G) with the susceptibility to asthma in the north Indian population.Conclusions: In conclusion, rs17587319 (C/G) of ATG5 does not predispose individuals to asthma in our part of the world. Further studies are needed including more number of samples to ascertain the role of this polymorphism in asthma.

Hypothalamic Kisspeptin Neurons: Integral Elements of the GnRH System.

Highly sophisticated and synchronized interactions of various cells and hormonal signals are required to make organisms competent for reproduction. GnRH neurons act as a common pathway for multiple cues for the onset of puberty and attaining reproductive function. GnRH is not directly receptive to most of the signals required for the GnRH secretion during the various phases of the ovarian cycle. Kisspeptin neurons of the hypothalamus convey these signals required for the synchronized release of the GnRH. The steroid-sensitive anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) kisspeptin and arcuate nucleus (ARC) KNDy neurons convey steroid feedback during the reproductive cycle necessary for GnRH surge and pulse, respectively. AVPV region kisspeptin neurons also communicate with nNOS synthesizing neurons and suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) neurons to coordinate the process of the ovarian cycle. Neurokinin B (NKB) and dynorphin play roles in the GnRH pulse stimulation and inhibition, respectively. The loss of NKB and kisspeptin function results in the development of neuroendocrine disorders such as hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH) and infertility. Ca2+ signaling is essential for GnRH pulse generation, which is propagated through gap junctions between astrocytes-KNDy and KNDy-KNDy neurons. Impaired functioning of KNDy neurons could develop the characteristics associated with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) in rodents. Kisspeptin-increased synthesis led to excessive secretion of the LH associated with PCOS. This review provides the latest insights and understanding into the role of the KNDy and AVPV/POA kisspeptin neurons in GnRH secretion and PCOS.

ATG5: A central autophagy regulator implicated in various human diseases.

Autophagy, an intracellular conserved degradative process, plays a central role in the renewal/recycling of a cell to maintain the homeostasis of nutrients and energy within the cell. ATG5, a key component of autophagy, regulates the formation of the autophagosome, a hallmark of autophagy. ATG5 binds with ATG12 and ATG16L1 resulting in E3 like ligase complex, which is necessary for autophagosome expansion. Available data suggest that ATG5 is indispensable for autophagy and has an imperative role in several essential biological processes. Moreover, ATG5 has also been demonstrated to possess autophagy-independent functions that magnify its significance and therapeutic potential. ATG5 interacts with various molecules for the execution of different processes implicated during physiological and pathological conditions. Furthermore, ATG5 genetic variants are associated with various ailments. This review discusses various autophagy-dependent and autophagy-independent roles of ATG5, highlights its various deleterious genetic variants reported until now, and various studies supporting it as a potential drug target.

Dysregulated miRNAs in Progression and Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive degeneration of neurons due to the accumulation of amyloid-ß peptide (Aß) and hyper-phosphorylation of tau protein in the neuronal milieu leading to increased oxidative stress and apoptosis. Numerous factors contribute towards the progression of AD, including miRNA, which are 22-24 nucleotides long sequence which acts as critical regulators of cellular processes by binding to 3' UTR of mRNA, regulating its expression post-transcriptionally. This review aims to determine the miRNA with the most significant dysregulation in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of human patients. A systemized inclusion/exclusion criterion has been utilized based on selected keywords followed by screening of those articles to conclude a list of 8 highly dysregulated miRNAs based on the fold change of AD vs control patients, which could be used in clinical testing as these miRNAs play central role in the pathophysiology of AD. Furthermore, a network study of highly dysregulated miRNA estimated the association of these miRNA in the mediation of Aß generation and aggregation, inhibition of autophagy, reduction of Aß clearance, microglial and astrocytic activation, neuro-inflammation, tau hyper-phosphorylation, and synaptic loss.

Morpholine substituted quinazoline derivatives as anticancer agents against MCF-7, A549 and SHSY-5Y cancer cell lines and mechanistic studies.

A series of morpholine substituted quinazoline derivatives have been synthesized and evaluated for cytotoxic potential against A549, MCF-7 and SHSY-5Y cancer cell lines. These compounds were found to be non-toxic against HEK293 cells at 25 µM and hence display anticancer potential. In these series compounds, AK-3 and AK-10 displayed significant cytotoxic activity against all the three cell lines. AK-3 displayed IC50 values of 10.38 ± 0.27 µM, 6.44 ± 0.29 µM and 9.54 ± 0.15 µM against A549, MCF-7 and SHSY-5Y cancer cell lines. Similarly, AK-10 showed IC50 values of 8.55 ± 0.67 µM, 3.15 ± 0.23 µM and 3.36 ± 0.29 µM against A549, MCF-7 and SHSY-5Y, respectively. In the mechanistic studies, it was found that AK-3 and AK-10 inhibit the cell proliferation in the G1 phase of the cell cycle and the primary cause of death of the cells was found to be through apoptosis. Thus, morpholine based quinazoline derivatives have the potential to be developed as potent anticancer drug molecules.

Association of IRGM gene promoter polymorphisms with hepatitis B virus infection.

BACKGROUND: In response to intracellular pathogens, the autophagy gene IRGM plays an essential role in the innate immune response. Various identified IRGM gene risk loci are associated with several diseases but, so far, no study is available that shows the association of IRGM with hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. METHODS: We genotyped promoter variants (rs4958842, rs4958843, and rs4958846) of IRGM in HBV infected patients (551) and healthy controls (247) for their role in HBV infection. The genotyping was performed by applying methods developed in our laboratory and various biochemical parameters were assessed applying commercially available kits. RESULTS: Data analysis has shown that the mutant allele A of rs4958842 plays a role in the protection from HBV infection in various genetic models that includes allelic, co-dominant and dominant models with the respective statistical data: allelic (odds ratio [OR] = 0.61; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.48-0.78; p = 0.0003), co-dominant (OR = 0.52; 95% CI = 0.38-0.71; p = 0.0008) and dominant (OR = 0.51; 95% CI = 0.38-0.70, p = 0.0004). In chronic hepatitis B (CHB), protective association was observed in the allelic (OR = 0.48; 95% CI = 0.35-0.65, p = 0.0004), co-dominant (OR = 0.38; 95% CI = 0.26-0.54, p = 0.0004) and dominant (OR = 0.38; 95% CI = 0.26-0.54, p = 0.0002) models. Mutant allele C of rs49598843 was associated with the risk of CHB in co-dominant (OR = 1.52; 95% CI = 1.07-2.16, p = 0.04) and dominant (OR = 1.41; 95% CI = 1.00-2.00, p = 0.04) models. The mutant allele C of rs4958846 decreased the risk of HBV infection in allelic (OR = 0.74; 95% CI = 0.59-0.92, p = 0.01), dominant (OR = 0.72; 95% CI = 0.53-0.98, p = 0.05), homozygous (OR = 0.42; 95% CI = 0.24-0.74, p = 0.01) and recessive (OR = 0.42; 95% CI = 0.24-0.74, p = 0.0004) models. However, in the asymptomatic group, it was associated with the increased chance of HBV infection. Haplotypes, ATT (OR = 0.47; 95% CI = 0.33-0.68, p = 0.001) and GTC (OR = 0.68; 95% CI = 0.51-0.92, p = 0.01) protect, whereas GTT (OR = 2.01; 95% CI = 1.55-2.60, p < 0.0001) predisposes the individuals to HBV infection. All of these p values mentioned here were obtained after performing Bonferroni correction. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our findings revealed that mutant allele A of rs4958842, mutant allele C of rs4958843 and rs4958846 were associated with hepatitis B virus infection in the North Indian population.

Interplay of KNDy and nNOS neurons: A new possible mechanism of GnRH secretion in the adult brain.

Reproduction in mammals is favoured when there is sufficient energy available to permit the survival of offspring. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase expressing neurons produce nitric oxide in the proximity of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the preoptic region. nNOS neurons are an integral part of the neuronal network controlling ovarian cyclicity and ovulation. Nitric oxide can directly regulate the activity of the GnRH neurons and play a vital role neuroendocrine axis. Kisspeptin neurons are essential for the GnRH pulse and surge generation. The anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV), kisspeptin neurons are essential for GnRH surge generation. KNDy neurons are present in the hypothalamus's arcuate nucleus (ARC), co-express NKB and dynorphin, essential for GnRH pulse generation. Kisspeptin-neurokinin B-dynorphin (KNDy) neuroendocrine molecules of the hypothalamus are key components in the central control of GnRH secretion. The hypothalamic neurons kisspeptin, KNDy, nitric oxide synthase (NOS), and other mediators such as leptin, adiponectin, and ghrelin, play an active role in attaining puberty. Kisspeptin signalling is mediated by NOS, which further results in the secretion of GnRH. Neuronal nitric oxide is critical for attaining puberty, but its direct role in adult GnRH secretion is poorly understood. This review mainly focuses on the role of nNOS and its interplay with KNDy neurons in the hormonal regulation of reproduction.

Gametogenic and steroidogenic action of kisspeptin-10 in the Asian catfish, Clarias batrachus: Putative underlying mechanistic cascade.

Unlike mammals, two kisspeptins genes encoding, kiss1 and kiss2 are detected in fishes with highly varied and contradictory difference in their reproductive activities. The present study was undertaken to examine the direct action of kisspeptin-10 and its role in gonadal activities in the gonadally quiescent Asian catfish using native mammalian kisspeptin decapeptide (KP-10) involving in vivo and in vitro approaches. The in vivo KP-10 treatment caused precocious onset of gametogenesis and its rapid progression, as was evident from the appearance of advanced stages of ovarian follicles in ovary, and advanced germ cells (spermatocytes/ spermatids) in the testis of the treated Clarias batrachus in comparison to the control gonads. It also elevated the steroid levels in gonads of the catfish in vivo and in vitro conditions. Simultaneously, it increased the expressions of key steroidogenic enzymes like 3ß-HSD, 17ß-HSD, and StAR protein, responsible for transfer of cholesterol from outer to inner membrane of the mitochondria of steroidogenic cells. Concurrently, it augmented the activities of 3ß-HSD and 17ß-HSD in the ovarian explants. The expressions of MAPK component (pERK1/2 and ERK1/2) were also up-regulated by KP-10 in gonadal explants. Thus, the data suggest that kisspeptin-10 stimulates gametogenesis by enhancing gonadal steroid production. The study also describes the putative mechanistic cascade of steroidogenic actions of kisspeptin-10 in the catfish so much so in teleost fish. The study also suggests that, kisspeptin may act locally to regulate gonadal activities in an autocrine/paracine manner, independent of known extra-gonadal factors in the catfish.

Dipropargyl substituted diphenylpyrimidines as dual inhibitors of monoamine oxidase and acetylcholinesterase.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurological disorder involving complex pathogenesis. Single target directed drugs proved ineffective and since last few years' different pharmacological strategies including multi-targeting agents are being explored for the effective drug development for AD. A total of 19 dipropargyl substituted diphenylpyrimidines have been synthesized and evaluated for the monoamine oxidase (MAO) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition potential. All the compounds were found to be selective and reversible inhibitors of MAO-B isoform. These compounds also displayed good AChE inhibition potential with IC50 values in low micromolar range. AVB4 was found to be the most potent MAO-B inhibitor with IC50 value of 1.49 ±â€¯0.09 µM and AVB1 was found to be the most potent AChE inhibitor with IC50 value of 1.35 ±â€¯0.03 µM. In the ROS protection inhibition studies, AVB1 and AVB4 displayed weak but interesting activity in SH-SY5Y cells. In the cytotoxicity studies involving SH-SY5Y cells, both AVB1 and AVB4 were found to be non-toxic to the tissue cells. In the molecular dynamic simulation studies of 30 ns, the potent compounds were found to be quite stable in the active site of MAO-B and AChE. The results suggested that AVB1 and AVB4 are promising dual inhibitors and have the potential to be developed as anti-Alzheimer's drug.

4,6-Diphenylpyrimidine Derivatives as Dual Inhibitors of Monoamine Oxidase and Acetylcholinesterase for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with multifactorial pathogenesis. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) and acetylcholinesterase enzymes (AChE) are potential targets for the treatment of AD. A total of 15 new propargyl containing 4,6-diphenylpyrimidine derivatives were synthesized and screened for the MAO and AChE inhibition activities along with ROS production inhibition and metal-chelation potential. All the synthesized compounds were found to be selective and potent inhibitors of MAO-A and AChE enzymes at nanomolar concentrations. VB1 was found to be the most potent MAO-A and BuChE inhibitor with IC50 values of 18.34 ± 0.38 nM and 0.666 ± 0.03 µM, respectively. It also showed potent AChE inhibition with an IC50 value of 30.46 ± 0.23 nM. Compound VB8 was found to be the most potent AChE inhibitor with an IC50 value of 9.54 ± 0.07 nM and displayed an IC50 value of 1010 ± 70.42 nM against the MAO-A isoform. In the cytotoxic studies, these compounds were found to be nontoxic to the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells even at 25 µM concentration. All the compounds were found to be reversible inhibitors of MAO-A and AChE enzymes. In addition, these compounds also showed good neuroprotective properties against 6-OHDA- and H2O2-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. All the compounds accommodate nicely to the hydrophobic cavity of MAO-A and AChE enzymes. In the molecular dynamics simulation studies, both VB1 and VB8 were found to be stable in the respective cavities for 30 ns. Thus, 4,6-diphenylpyrimidine derivatives can act as promising leads in the development of dual-acting inhibitors targeting MAO-A and AChE enzymes for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

New approach for the quantification of metallic species in healthcare products based on optical switching of a Schiff base possessing ONO donor set.

A new method is reported for the quantification of some metallic components of healthcare products utilizing a Schiff base chelator derived from 2-hydroxyacetophenone and ethanolamine. The Schiff base chelator recognizes some metallic species such as iron, copper and zinc (important components of some healthcare products), and cadmium (common contaminant in healthcare products) giving colorimetric/fluorimetric response. It coordinates with Fe2+/Fe3+ and Cu2+ ions via ONO donor set and switches the colour to bright red, green and orange, respectively. Similarly, it switches 'ON' a fluorometric response when coordinates with Zn2+ and Cd2+ ions. In the present approach, detailed studies on the colorimetric and fluorimetric response of ONO Schiff base is investigated in detail. The Job plot for the complexation of ONO switch with various metal ions suggested formation of 1:1 (metal-chelator) complex with Fe2+, Fe3+, and Cu2+ while 1:2 (metal-chelator) for Zn2+ and Cd2+ ions. The limit of detection, limit of quantification are 6.73, 18.0, 25.0, 0.65, 1.10µM and 27.0, 72.0, 100.0, 2.60 and 4.40µM for Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Zn2+ and Cd2+ ions, respectively. Under the optimized conditions, chelator was used for the quantification of important metals present in healthcare products via direct dissolution and furnace treatment during sample preparation. The results were found precise and accurate for both sample preparation techniques using the developed method.

Microbial xylanases and their industrial application in pulp and paper biobleaching: a review.

Xylanases are hydrolytic enzymes which cleave the ß-1, 4 backbone of the complex plant cell wall polysaccharide xylan. Xylan is the major hemicellulosic constituent found in soft and hard food. It is the next most abundant renewable polysaccharide after cellulose. Xylanases and associated debranching enzymes produced by a variety of microorganisms including bacteria, actinomycetes, yeast and fungi bring hydrolysis of hemicelluloses. Despite thorough knowledge of microbial xylanolytic systems, further studies are required to achieve a complete understanding of the mechanism of xylan degradation by xylanases produced by microorganisms and their promising use in pulp biobleaching. Cellulase-free xylanases are important in pulp biobleaching as alternatives to the use of toxic chlorinated compounds because of the environmental hazards and diseases caused by the release of the adsorbable organic halogens. In this review, we have focused on the studies of structural composition of xylan in plants, their classification, sources of xylanases, extremophilic xylanases, modes of fermentation for the production of xylanases, factors affecting xylanase production, statistical approaches such as Plackett Burman, Response Surface Methodology to enhance xylanase production, purification, characterization, molecular cloning and expression. Besides this, review has focused on the microbial enzyme complex involved in the complete breakdown of xylan and the studies on xylanase regulation and their potential industrial applications with special reference to pulp biobleaching, which is directly related to increasing pulp brightness and reduction in environmental pollution.

Stage-specific functions of Semaphorin7A during adult hippocampal neurogenesis rely on distinct receptors.

The guidance protein Semaphorin7A (Sema7A) is required for the proper development of the immune and nervous systems. Despite strong expression in the mature brain, the role of Sema7A in the adult remains poorly defined. Here we show that Sema7A utilizes different cell surface receptors to control the proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitors in the adult hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG), one of the select regions of the mature brain where neurogenesis occurs. PlexinC1 is selectively expressed in early neural progenitors in the adult mouse DG and mediates the inhibitory effects of Sema7A on progenitor proliferation. Subsequently, during differentiation of adult-born DG granule cells, Sema7A promotes dendrite growth, complexity and spine development through ß1-subunit-containing integrin receptors. Our data identify Sema7A as a key regulator of adult hippocampal neurogenesis, providing an example of how differential receptor usage spatiotemporally controls and diversifies the effects of guidance cues in the adult brain.

Investigating regulatory signatures of human autophagy related gene 5 (ATG5) through functional in silico analysis.

Autophagy is an essential, homeostatic process which removes damaged cellular proteins and organelles for cellular renewal. ATG5, a part of E3 ubiquitin ligase-like complex (Atg12-Atg5/Atg16L1), is a key regulator involved in autophagosome formation - a crucial phase of autophagy. In this study, we used different in silico methods for comprehensive analysis of ATG5 to investigate its less explored regulatory activity. We have predicted various physico-chemical parameters and two possible transmembrane models that helped in exposing its functional regions. Twenty four PTM sites and 44 TFBS were identified which could be targeted to modulate the autophagy pathway. Furthermore, LD analysis identified 3 blocks of genotyped SNPs and 2 deleterious nsSNPs that may have damaging impact on protein function and thus could be employed for carrying genome-wide association studies. In conclusion, the information obtained in this study could be helpful for better understanding of regulatory roles of ATG5 and provides a base for its implication in population-based studies.

A microRNA switch regulates the rise in hypothalamic GnRH production before puberty.

A sparse population of a few hundred primarily hypothalamic neurons forms the hub of a complex neuroglial network that controls reproduction in mammals by secreting the 'master molecule' gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Timely postnatal changes in GnRH expression are essential for puberty and adult fertility. Here we report that a multilayered microRNA-operated switch with built-in feedback governs increased GnRH expression during the infantile-to-juvenile transition and that impairing microRNA synthesis in GnRH neurons leads to hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and infertility in mice. Two essential components of this switch, miR-200 and miR-155, respectively regulate Zeb1, a repressor of Gnrh transcriptional activators and Gnrh itself, and Cebpb, a nitric oxide-mediated repressor of Gnrh that acts both directly and through Zeb1, in GnRH neurons. This alteration in the delicate balance between inductive and repressive signals induces the normal GnRH-fuelled run-up to correct puberty initiation, and interfering with this process disrupts the neuroendocrine control of reproduction.