Inhibition of the spindle assembly checkpoint kinase Mps-1 as a novel therapeutic strategy in malignant mesothelioma.

Malignant mesothelioma (MM) is an aggressive malignancy, highly resistant to current medical and surgical therapies, whose tumor cells characteristically show a high level of aneuploidy and genomic instability. We tested our hypothesis that targeting chromosomal instability in MM would improve response to therapy. Thr/Tyr kinase (TTK)/monopolar spindle 1 kinase (Mps-1) is a kinase of the spindle assembly checkpoint that controls cell division and cell fate. CFI-402257 is a novel, selective inhibitor of Mps-1 with antineoplastic activity. We found that CFI-402257 suppresses MM growth. We found that Mps-1 is overexpressed in MM and that its expression correlates with poor patients' outcome. In vitro, CFI-402257-mediated inhibition of Mps-1 resulted in abrogation of the mitotic checkpoint, premature progression through mitosis, marked aneuploidy and mitotic catastrophe. In vivo, CFI-402257 reduced MM growth in an orthotopic, syngeneic model, when used as a single agent, and more so when used in combination with cisplatin+pemetrexed, the current standard of care. Our preclinical findings indicate that CFI-402257 is a promising novel therapeutic agent to improve the efficacy of the current chemotherapeutic regimens for MM patients.

Minimal asbestos exposure in germline BAP1 heterozygous mice is associated with deregulated inflammatory response and increased risk of mesothelioma.

Germline BAP1 mutations predispose to several cancers, in particular malignant mesothelioma. Mesothelioma is an aggressive malignancy generally associated with professional exposure to asbestos. However, to date, we found that none of the mesothelioma patients carrying germline BAP1 mutations were professionally exposed to asbestos. We hypothesized that germline BAP1 mutations might influence the asbestos-induced inflammatory response that is linked to asbestos carcinogenesis, thereby increasing the risk of developing mesothelioma after minimal exposure. Using a BAP1(+/-) mouse model, we found that, compared with their wild-type littermates, BAP1(+/-) mice exposed to low-dose asbestos fibers showed significant alterations of the peritoneal inflammatory response, including significantly higher levels of pro-tumorigenic alternatively polarized M2 macrophages, and lower levels of several chemokines and cytokines. Consistent with these data, BAP1(+/-) mice had a significantly higher incidence of mesothelioma after exposure to very low doses of asbestos, doses that rarely induced mesothelioma in wild-type mice. Our findings suggest that minimal exposure to carcinogenic fibers may significantly increase the risk of malignant mesothelioma in genetically predisposed individuals carrying germline BAP1 mutations, possibly via alterations of the inflammatory response.

Aspirin delays mesothelioma growth by inhibiting HMGB1-mediated tumor progression.

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an inflammatory molecule that has a critical role in the initiation and progression of malignant mesothelioma (MM). Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, ASA) is the most widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that reduces the incidence, metastatic potential and mortality of many inflammation-induced cancers. We hypothesized that ASA may exert anticancer properties in MM by abrogating the carcinogenic effects of HMGB1. Using HMGB1-secreting and -non-secreting human MM cell lines, we determined whether aspirin inhibited the hallmarks of HMGB1-induced MM cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Our data demonstrated that ASA and its metabolite, salicylic acid (SA), inhibit motility, migration, invasion and anchorage-independent colony formation of MM cells via a novel HMGB1-mediated mechanism. ASA/SA, at serum concentrations comparable to those achieved in humans taking therapeutic doses of aspirin, and BoxA, a specific inhibitor of HMGB1, markedly reduced MM growth in xenograft mice and significantly improved survival of treated animals. The effects of ASA and BoxA were cyclooxygenase-2 independent and were not additive, consistent with both acting via inhibition of HMGB1 activity. Our findings provide a rationale for the well documented, yet poorly understood antitumorigenic activity of aspirin, which we show proceeds via HMGB1 inhibition. Moreover, the use of BoxA appears to allow a more efficient HMGB1 targeting while eluding the known gastrointestinal side effects of ASA. Our findings are directly relevant to MM. Given the emerging importance of HMGB1 and its tumor-promoting functions in many cancer types, and of aspirin in cancer prevention and therapy, our investigation is poised to provide broadly applicable information.

Autocrine CSF-1R signaling drives mesothelioma chemoresistance via AKT activation.

Clinical management of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is very challenging because of the uncommon resistance of this tumor to chemotherapy. We report here increased expression of macrophage colony-stimulating-factor-1-receptor (M-CSF/CSF-1R) mRNA in mesothelioma versus normal tissue specimens and demonstrate that CSF-1R expression identifies chemoresistant cells of mesothelial nature in both primary cultures and mesothelioma cell lines. By using RNAi or ligand trapping, we demonstrate that the chemoresistance properties of those cells depend on autocrine CSF-1R signaling. At the single-cell level, the isolated CSF-1R(pos) cells exhibit a complex repertoire of pluripotency, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and detoxifying factors, which define a clonogenic, chemoresistant, precursor-like cell sub-population. The simple activation of CSF-1R in untransformed mesothelial cells is sufficient to confer clonogenicity and resistance to pemetrexed, hallmarks of mesothelioma. In addition, this induced a gene expression profile highly mimicking that observed in the MPM cells endogenously expressing the receptor and the ligands, suggesting that CSF-1R expression is mainly responsible for the phenotype of the identified cell sub-populations. The survival of CSF1R(pos) cells requires active AKT (v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1) signaling, which contributed to increased levels of nuclear, transcriptionally competent ß-catenin. Inhibition of AKT reduced the transcriptional activity of ß-catenin-dependent reporters and sensitized the cells to senescence-induced clonogenic death after pemetrexed treatment. This work expands what is known on the non-macrophage functions of CSF-1R and its role in solid tumors, and suggests that CSF-1R signaling may have a critical pathogenic role in a prototypical, inflammation-related cancer such as MPM and therefore may represent a promising target for therapeutic intervention.

Expression profiling stratifies mesothelioma tumors and signifies deregulation of spindle checkpoint pathway and microtubule network with therapeutic implications.

BACKGROUND: Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a lethal neoplasm exhibiting resistance to most treatment regimens and requires effective therapeutic options. Though an effective strategy in many cancer, targeted therapy is relatively unexplored in MPM because the therapeutically important oncogenic pathways and networks in MPM are largely unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We carried out gene expression microarray profiling of 53 surgically resected MPMs tumors along with paired normal tissue. We also carried out whole transcriptomic sequence (RNA-seq) analysis on eight tumor specimens. Taqman-based quantitative Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western analysis and immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis of mitotic arrest deficient-like 1 (MAD2L1) was carried out on tissue specimens. Cell viability assays of MPM cell lines were carried out to assess sensitivity to specific small molecule inhibitors. RESULTS: Bioinformatics analysis of the microarray data followed by pathway analysis revealed that the mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint (MSAC) pathway was most significantly altered in MPM tumors with upregulation of 18 component genes, including MAD2L1 gene. We validated the microarray data for MAD2L1 expression using quantitative qRT-PCR and western blot analysis on tissue lysates. Additionally, we analyzed expression of the MAD2L1 protein by IHC using an independent tissue microarray set of 80 MPM tissue samples. Robust clustering of gene expression data revealed three novel subgroups of tumors, with unique expression profiles, and showed differential expression of MSAC pathway genes. Network analysis of the microarray data showed the cytoskeleton/spindle microtubules network was the second-most significantly affected network. We also demonstrate that a nontaxane small molecule inhibitor, epothilone B, targeting the microtubules have great efficacy in decreasing viability of 14 MPM cell lines. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our findings show that MPM tumors have significant deregulation of the MSAC pathway and the microtubule network, it can be classified into three novel molecular subgroups of potential therapeutic importance and epothilone B is a promising therapeutic agent for MPM.

Protumorigenic effects of mir-145 loss in malignant pleural mesothelioma.

We identified a discrete number of microRNAs differentially expressed in benign or malignant mesothelial tissues. We focused on mir-145 whose levels were significantly downregulated in malignant mesothelial tissues and malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) cell lines as compared to benign tissues (pleura, peritoneum or cysts). We show that promoter hyper-methylation caused very low levels in MPM cell lines and specimens. Treatment of MPM cell lines with mir-145 agonists negatively modulated some protumorigenic properties of MPM cells, such as clonogenicity, cell migration and resistance to pemetrexed treatment. The main effector mechanism of the clonogenic death induced by mir-145 was that of accelerated senescence. We found that mir-145 targeted OCT4 via specific binding to its 3'-UTR. Increased intracellular levels of mir-145 decreased the levels of OCT4 and its target gene ZEB1, thereby counteracting the increase of OCT4 induced by pemetrexed treatment which is known to favor the development of chemoresistant cells. In line with this, reintroduction of OCT4 into mimic-145 treated cells counteracted the effects on clonogenicity and replicative senescence. This further supports the relevance of the mir-145-OCT4 interaction for the survival of MPM cells. The potential use of mir-145 expression levels to classify benign vs malignant mesothelial tissues and the differences between pemetrexed-induced senescence and that induced by the re-expression of mir-145 are discussed.

Onconase mediated NFKß downregulation in malignant pleural mesothelioma.

Treatment of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) with Ranpirnase (Onconase) results in disruption of protein translation and cell apoptosis. We hypothesize that Onconase exerts an effect via downregulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFKß) by specific microRNAs (miRNAs) and that interference of this pathway could have implications for MPM resistance to chemotherapy. Three immortalized MPM cell lines (H2959, H2373 and H2591) were exposed to Onconase at 0-20 µg/ml. Cell counts were measured at 48 and 72 h. Gene expression in miRNA-enriched RNA was validated by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). The functional implications of miRNA expression were evaluated by transfecting miRNA mimics or inhibitors into MPM cell lines, and performing Matrigel invasion, cell proliferation, soft agar colony formation and scratch closure assays. Effects on NFKß expression and downstream targets including ABC transporters, BCL-xl and IAP were assessed by RT-PCR and western blotting. Treatment with 20 µg/ml of Onconase significantly decreased cell count and invasion. Hsa-miR-17* was significantly upregulated and hsa-miR-30c was significantly downregulated by Onconase treatment in all cell lines. Forced expression of hsa-miR-17* mimic and hsa-miR-30c inhibitor each significantly decreased functional activity of Onconase in all assays. NFKB1 (p50) expression and downstream targets were also decreased with Onconase treatment, as well as with forced expression of miRNA mimic and inhibitors. Onconase treatment caused a significant decrease in cell proliferation, invasion and in expression of certain miRNAs. Recapitulation of the resultant miRNA expression pattern with hsa-miR-17* mimic and hsa-miR-30c inhibitor resulted in downregulation of NFKB1 and reduced malignant behavior in functional assays. Thus, Onconase likely exerts its antitumor effect through these miRNAs.

The promyelocytic leukemia zinc-finger gene, PLZF, is frequently downregulated in malignant mesothelioma cells and contributes to cell survival.

DNA copy number analysis was performed, using single-nucleotide polymorphism mapping arrays, to fine map genomic imbalances in human malignant mesothelioma (MM) cell lines derived from primary tumors. Chromosomal losses accounted for the majority of genomic imbalances. All 22 cell lines examined showed homozygous deletions of 9p21.3, centering at the CDKN2A/ARF and CDKN2B loci. Other commonly underrepresented segments included 1p36, 1p22, 3p21-22, 4q13, 4q34, 11q23, 13q12-13, 14q32, 15q15, 18q12, and 22q12, each observed in 55-90% of cell lines. Focal deletions of 11q23 encompassed the transcriptional repressor gene promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger (PLZF), which was validated by analysis of genomic DNA using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Semi-quantitative RT-PCR and immunoblot analysis revealed that PLZF is greatly downregulated in MM cell lines compared with non-malignant mesothelial cells. Ectopic expression of PLZF in PLZF-deficient MM cells resulted in decreased cell viability, reduced colony formation, as well as increased apoptosis, the latter based on results of various cell death assays and the observation of increased cleavage of caspase 3, PARP, and Mcl-1. These data indicate that deletions of PLZF are a common occurrence in MM and that downregulation of PLZF may contribute to MM pathogenesis by promoting cell survival.

Eighth international mesothelioma interest group.

The eighth International Mesothelioma Interest Group (IMIG) meeting was held in Chicago, IL, United States, in 19-22 October 2006 to discuss mesothelioma - the cancer often linked to asbestos exposure. It is a very aggressive malignancy with a median survival of less than 1 year from diagnosis. Millions of people have been exposed worldwide to asbestos, especially during the second half of the twentieth century when asbestos use increased significantly. The tons of asbestos utilized in the past remain a health hazard for current and future generations because asbestos is difficult to be disposed off. This makes asbestos and mesothelioma research a public health issue in addition to a medical problem. Moreover, the very high costs of asbestos litigation have a significant impact on the whole economy. In the United States, up until 2001, defendant companies had paid 54 billion dollars in claims and estimated future liabilities ranged from 145 to 210 billion. Therefore, asbestos research is of great interest to a large audience that includes patients, millions of asbestos-exposed individuals, scientists, physicians, public health officials, politicians, unions of asbestos workers, lawyers and the public at large. During the past few years, there has been significant progress in understanding the process of mineral fiber carcinogenesis and mesothelioma pathogenesis. With improved understanding of the pathogenesis of mesothelioma, new diagnostic, preventive and therapeutic options are being developed. A total of 247 papers were presented at the IMIG: the abstracts of these presentations were published in Lung Cancer, Supplement 1, October 2006. Here, experts in different disciplines critically review some of the most exciting presentations of the IMIG meeting. The result is a comprehensive review of the research field of asbestos carcinogenesis and mesothelioma, and of the progress that has been made in recent years in both basic and clinical sciences.

Polio vaccines, SV40 and human tumours, an update on false positive and false negative results.

Simian virus 40 (SV40) has been detected in different human tumours in numerous laboratories. The detection of SV40 in human tumours has been linked to the administration of SV40-contaminated polio vaccines from 1954 until 1963. Many of these reports linked SV40 to human mesothelioma. Some studies have failed to detect SV40 in human tumours and this has caused a controversy. Here we review the current literature. Moreover, we present evidence showing how differences in the sensitivities of methodologies can lead to a very different interpretation of the same study. The same 20 mesothelioma specimens all tested negative, 2/20 tested positive or 7/20 tested positive for SV40 Tag by simply changing the detection method on the same immuno-precipitation/western blot membranes. These results provide a simple explanation for some of the apparent discordant results reported in the literature.

New developments about the association of SV40 with human mesothelioma.

Simian virus 40 (SV40) has been detected in human tumors in over 40 different laboratories. Many of these reports linked SV40 to human mesotheliomas. The Vaccine Safety Committee of the Institute of Medicine (IOM), National Academy of Sciences, USA, recently reviewed the evidence associating polio vaccines and/or SV40 with human tumors. The IOM conclusions about polio vaccines and human cancer were: (1) 'the evidence is inadequate to accept or reject a causal relation between SV40-containing polio vaccines and cancer' because the 'epidemiological studies are sufficiently flawed'; (2) 'the biological evidence is of moderate strength that SV40 exposure from the polio vaccines is related to SV40 infection in humans'. The epidemiological studies were considered flawed because it was not possible to distinguish reliably among exposed and nonexposed cohorts. Concerning SV40, the IOM concluded that (1) 'the evidence is strong that SV40 is a transforming virus; (2) the evidence is of moderate strength that SV40 exposure could lead to cancer in humans under natural conditions' (IOM, 2002). Similar conclusions were reached at an International consensus meeting on SV40 and human tumors held at the University of Chicago in 2001. G Klein and C Croce, who chaired the final panel that reviewed all the published evidence linking SV40 to human tumors, stated that 'the presence of SV40 in human tumors has been convincingly demonstrated' (Klein et al., 2002). In addition, a workshop organized by the Biological Carcinogenesis Branch of the National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, chaired by J Pagano, has reached similar conclusions (Wong et al., 2002). Therefore, three independent scientific panels have all agreed that there is compelling evidence that SV40 is present in some human cancers and that SV40 could contribute to the pathogenesis of some of them. It should be noted that the presence of SV40 in mesothelioma and other human tumor types has been challenged by a research team that has consistently reported negative findings (Strickler et al., 2001). However, a member of this research team has recently acknowledged - in sworn testimony -sensitivity problems and possible irregularities that raise concerns about these negative reports (MacLachlan, 2002). These revelations, together with the conclusions of the three independent panels mentioned above, appear to bring to an end the apparent controversy about the presence of SV40 in human mesotheliomas and brain tumors.

Sarcomatoid mesothelioma and its histological mimics: a comparative immunohistochemical study.

AIMS: Differentiating sarcomatoid mesothelioma from other pleural-based spindle cell tumours by light microscopy can be challenging, especially in a biopsy. The role of immunohistochemistry in this differential diagnosis is not as well defined as it is for distinguishing epithelioid mesothelioma from adenocarcinoma. In this study, we investigate the utility of diagnostic immunohistochemistry for distinguishing sarcomatoid mesothelioma from its histological mimics, high-grade sarcoma and pulmonary sarcomatoid carcinoma. METHODS: We stained 20 mesotheliomas with sarcomatoid components (10 biphasic and 10 sarcomatoid mesotheliomas) for pan-cytokeratin, cytokeratin 5/6, calretinin, WT-1, thrombomodulin, and smooth muscle actin. Intensity and distribution of staining were assessed using a semiquantitative scale. Only tumours with unequivocal staining were considered positive for tabulation. We compared the immunophenotypic profiles of these tumours with 24 high-grade sarcomas, 10 pulmonary sarcomatoid carcinomas, and 16 epithelioid mesotheliomas. The sarcomatoid carcinomas were also stained for thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1). RESULTS: Pan-cytokeratin stained 70% of sarcomatoid mesotheliomas, 17% of sarcomas, 90% of sarcomatoid carcinomas, and 100% of epithelioid mesotheliomas. Cytokeratin 5/6 and WT-1 stained most epithelioid mesotheliomas, but rarely stained sarcomas, sarcomatoid carcinomas, or the sarcomatoid components of mesothelioma. Calretinin and thrombomodulin each stained 70% of sarcomatoid mesotheliomas. However, calretinin was also positive in 17% of sarcomas and in 60% of sarcomatoid carcinomas, while thrombomodulin was positive in 38% of sarcomas and in 40% of sarcomatoid carcinomas. Smooth muscle actin was expressed in 60% of sarcomatoid mesotheliomas and in 58% of sarcomas, but in only 10% of sarcomatoid carcinomas. All 10 sarcomatoid carcinomas were negative for TTF-1. CONCLUSIONS: Mesothelioma shows decreased expression of epithelial and mesothelial epitopes in its sarcomatoid components. A wide immunophenotypic overlap exists among sarcomatoid mesotheliomas, sarcoma, and sarcomatoid carcinomas. Cytokeratin and calretinin have the most value in differentiating sarcomatoid mesothelioma from sarcoma. However, because sarcomatoid mesothelioma can occasionally be cytokeratin-negative, the distinction between it and sarcoma may become arbitrary. With the exception of smooth muscle actin, all the markers studied showed similar distributions in sarcomatoid mesothelioma and sarcomatoid carcinoma, including frequent calretinin and thrombomodulin expression in both tumours. Thus, immunohistochemistry plays a more limited role in the differential diagnosis of sarcomatoid tumours compared with epithelioid tumours. For sarcomatoid tumours involving the pleural lining, clinicopathological data, especially information about the gross appearance of the tumour (i.e. localized versus diffuse pleural-based mass), should be noted and carefully correlated with microscopic and immunohistochemical findings.

Aberrant methylation and simian virus 40 tag sequences in malignant mesothelioma.

Aberrant promoter methylation and resultant silencing of several genes plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many tumor types. We compared the methylation profile of 66 malignant mesotheliomas (MMs) and 40 lung adenocarcinomas using methylation-specific PCR for seven genes frequently methylated in lung cancer. We also compared the methylation frequencies of these genes as well as the methylation index, a reflection of all of the gene frequencies, with the presence of SV40 large T-antigen (Tag) sequences, histological subtype, and patient survival. Our major findings are: (a) with the exception of the RASSF1A promoter of the RASSF1 gene, frequencies of aberrant methylation were significantly lower in MMs than in adenocarcinomas; (b) the frequency of RASSF1A aberrant methylation and the value of the methylation index were significantly higher in SV40 sequence positive MM than in negative MM; and (c) the methylation index was higher in epithelial MM than in sarcomatous/mixed MM. Our results demonstrate a relationship between SV40 and aberrant methylation in MMs.

SV40 and the pathogenesis of mesothelioma.

Malignant mesothelioma, a tumor of the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum, is presently a worldwide problem. Current therapy is ineffective in slowing the course of the disease, and median survival from the time of diagnosis is rarely greater than 1 year. While the tumor was almost unknown prior to the second half of the twentieth century, it is presently responsible for more than 2000 deaths per year in the US alone. Mesothelioma is frequently associated with exposure to asbestos, but the incidence of cases involving individuals with low levels of asbestos exposure is increasing. For this reason, there has been much interest in studying whether there are alternative factors that act alone or in conjunction with asbestos in producing this malignancy. In the last decade, simian virus 40 (SV40) has become the most notable suspected agent.

Prospects for an SV40 vaccine.

The identification of SV40 as a possible cause of human cancer leads to the question of whether the unique properties of the virus can be exploited to treat patients with SV40-positive mesotheliomas, which are otherwise refractory to successful intervention. A modified SV40 T antigen, from which the transforming domains have been removed, has been cloned into a vaccinia virus vector and tested in animal tumor model systems. It has been shown to be effective against both subsequent tumor challenge and pre-existing tumors. Thus, the potential exists for use of such a vaccine in mesothelioma patients.

Novel molecular and immunotherapeutic strategies for lung cancer.

Lung cancer therapy in the future will be guided by specific characteristics of the individual tumor specimens. The molecular cancer phenotyping will allow for targeted approaches based on the amplification of oncogenes, lack of tumor suppressor genes, dysregulation of growth factors, and angiogenesis or matrix metalloproteinases. Specific immunotherapeutic approaches based on.

Perspective: cell differentiation theory may advance early detection of and therapy for lung cancer.

Many of these deaths could be prevented if there were better screening methods to uncover the disease when it is limited and most responsive to intervention. Novel biomarkers of early-stage disease are therefore needed. By applying the principle of "oncology recapitulates ontogeny", we have discovered three homeobox (HOX) genes that are inappropriately expressed in the majority of lung tumors. Understanding the role of these inappropriately expressed genes in lung epithelial cell carcinogenesis may not only augment early detection, but may also offer new avenues of treatment of this disease.

Malignant pleural mesothelioma: surgical roles and novel therapies.

Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a uniformly fatal disease that has been recalcitrant to curative therapies. Median survivals of 8-18 months have, for the most part, led to a sense of frustration and nihilism in the medical and surgical community with regard to management of the disease, and the relatively small numbers of patients with mesothelioma have made it an orphan among other cancers with regard to research efforts and funding. This review will comment on the clinical presentation of the disease and therapeutic options that are available at this time. The role, timing, degree, and availability of cytoreductive surgery in the context of a multimodality approach for MPM will be highlighted, and various strategies that incorporate adjunctive therapies before, during, or after the operation will be discussed. Newer cytotoxic chemotherapies, either alone or in combination, are reviewed, with an emphasis on the increasing number of options with increased response rates that are becoming available for MPM patients. The results of protocols at selected centers that offer gene therapy, photodynamic therapy, hyperthermic chemotherapeutic perfusion, and intrapleural chemokines will be discussed, as well as newer preclinical approaches that base targeted therapies on novel molecular findings. In considering the newest approaches to the disease, one is encouraged to seek specialty consultation at centers that concentrate programmatic efforts on mesothelioma in order to design translational-based approaches on preclinical findings. By using such an approach, the patient and physician will find that there are considerably more options in the new century for mesothelioma.

A simple method for generating full length cDNA from low abundance partial genomic clones.

BACKGROUND: PCR amplification of target molecules involves sequence specific primers that flank the region to be amplified. While this technique is generally routine, its applicability may not be sufficient to generate a desired target molecule from two separate regions involving intron /exon boundaries. For these situations, the generation of full-length complementary DNAs from two partial genomic clones becomes necessary for the family of low abundance genes. RESULTS: The first approach we used for the isolation of full-length cDNA from two known genomic clones of Hox genes was based on fusion PCR. Here we describe a simple and efficient method of amplification for homeobox D13 (HOXD13) full length cDNA from two partial genomic clones. Specific 5' and 3' untranslated region (UTR) primer pairs and website program (primer3_www.cgv0.2) were key steps involved in this process. CONCLUSIONS: We have devised a simple, rapid and easy method for generating cDNA clone from genomic sequences. The full length HOXD13 clone (1.1 kb) generated with this technique was confirmed by sequence analysis. This simple approach can be utilized to generate full-length cDNA clones from available partial genomic sequences.

Human mesothelial cells are unusually susceptible to simian virus 40-mediated transformation and asbestos cocarcinogenicity.

Mesothelioma, a malignancy associated with asbestos, has been recently linked to simian virus 40 (SV40). We found that infection of human mesothelial cells by SV40 is very different from the semipermissive infection thought to be characteristic of human cells. Mesothelial cells are uniformly infected but not lysed by SV40, a mechanism related to p53, and undergo cell transformation at an extremely high rate. Exposure of mesothelial cells to asbestos complemented SV40 mutants in transformation. Our data provide a mechanistic explanation for the ability of SV40 to transform mesothelial cells preferentially and indicate that asbestos and SV40 may be cocarcinogens.