The impact of dietary Black Soldier Fly larvae oil and meal on laying hen performance and egg quality.

Recently, the US FDA and Association of American Feed Control Officials approved Black Soldier Fly larvae (BSFL) as a feed ingredient for poultry. The objectives of this work were 1) to evaluate the nutritional profile of BSFL oil and meal in laying hens, and 2) measure the impact of the BSFL treatments on hen performance and egg quality. In 2 experiments, BSFL oil and meal were fed to replicate hens from 43 to 47 wk and from 51 to 55 wk of age. The hens were fed isocaloric, isonitrogenous diets with 3 treatment levels of BSFL oil (1.5, 3, and 4.5%, Exp. 1) or BSFL meal (8, 16 and 24%, Exp. 2). Data were analyzed by one-factor ANOVA for the main effect of diet and Tukey's multiple comparison for mean separation when significant. Exp. 1 results suggest BSFL oil could readily substituted for soybean oil with commercial hens at inclusion levels up to 4.5%. ADFI, BW, egg production, FCR, and egg weight were not impacted by the oil treatments (P > 0.05). Yolk color among hens fed the BSFL oil was greater averaging 7.88 compared to 7.37 from Control hen eggs (P = 0.0001). Exp. 2 diet formulation replaced soybean oil and meal with BSFL meal, and some additional corn was used in the higher BSFL diets. Diet amino acid balance at the highest level of inclusion (24% BSFL meal) indicates arginine and tryptophan are limiting and ADFI, BW and egg production were reduced (P < 0.05). Egg production averaged 85.14% for the Control, 8 and 16% BSFL meal hens and was significantly greater than hens fed 24% meal at 77.01%. However, 8 and 16% BSFL meal levels had no negative impact on performance and were not significantly different than the Controls. Yolk color was again higher among the meal treatments compared to the control (P = 0.0351). These experiments indicate that BSFL oil and meal can be used as dietary energy, protein and amino acids for hen maintenance, egg production and yolk coloration, although there may be upper limits of dietary inclusion.

The efficacy of pulsed ultraviolet light processing for table and hatching eggs.

In the United States, every year an average of 287.1 eggs are consumed per person, and over 14.1 billion eggs are set in hatchery incubators to produce chicks destined for the egg and meat bird industries. By reducing the microbial load on eggs, food-borne-associated outbreaks can be reduced while good chick health is maintained. Pulsed ultraviolet (PUV) light system delivers an energy-intense broad spectrum (100-1,100 nm) pulse derived from a xenon flashlamp. In recent years, PUV light has been shown to reduce microbial pathogens on the surface of shell eggs by using a static PUV light system. In this study, shell eggs were surface inoculated with Escherichia coli or Enterococcus faecium and treated with PUV light using a modified egg candling conveyor that provided complete rotation of eggs under a flashlamp. Pulsed UV light treatment inactivated both microbial strains, with greater energy resulting in a greater germicidal response (P < 0.05). Treatments of 1.0, 2.4, 3.1, and 4.9 J/cm2 resulted in microbial reductions (Log10 CFU/cm2) of 3.83, 4.26, 4.28, and 4.62 for E. coli and 2.04, 3.12, 3.11, and 3.82 for E. faecium, respectively. This study also evaluated the effects of PUV light treatment of hatching eggs (commercial Leghorn hybrids) on both embryo and chick growth parameters. Using the same system, 4 replicates of 125 fertile eggs per rep were treated with 0 (control), 4.9, 24.4, or 48.8 J/cm2 of PUV light. After processing, eggs were placed in a commercial incubator under normal incubation conditions. There was no significant effect of the PUV light treatment on percent fertility, hatchability, or hatch (P > 0.05). Furthermore, there were no significant effects on posthatch observations, including livability and average bird weight at hatch or at 42 d of age (P > 0.05). In conclusion, this study supports the application of PUV light as an effective antimicrobial intervention for both table and hatching eggs.

Feeding broiler chicks diets containing keto- and hydroxy-acids: performance and carcass weight.

This study evaluated reduced dietary CP and supplementing amino acid analogs to sustain growth and carcass weight in 0- to 21-day-old Cobb × Avian-48 male broiler chicks. A total of 6 diets with 3 levels of CP (22.5, 19.5, and 16.5%) and 2 sources of AA analogs, either synthetic amino acids (SA) or keto-/hydroxy-acids (KA), were assigned randomly to 36 cages (8 chicks/cage) in a 3 × 2 factorial design. For SA diets, DL-Met, DL-Met + L-Ile, and D-Met + L-Ile + L-Val were used to supplement 22.5, 19.5, and 16.5% CP diets, respectively, and for corresponding KA diets, DL-Met was replaced with methionine hydroxy analog (MHA), L-Ile was replaced with keto-Ile, and L-Val was replaced with keto-Val. Water and all isocaloric diets (3,050 kcal ME/kg) were given ad libitum. Lowering dietary CP to 16.5% reduced BW at 7, 14, and 21 D (P ≤ 0.0001) and feed intake at 8 to 14, 15 to 21, and 0 to 21 D (P ≤ 0.001). Body weight gain (BWG) was reduced and feed-to-gain ratio (FGR) was increased (P ≤ 0.003 to 0.0001) at all times for chicks fed 16.5% CP; however, chicks fed 22.5 and 19.5% CP had comparable performance. Differences in 0 to 7 D BWG (SA, 122.9 vs. KA, 113.9 g/bird; P ≤ 0.04), a 0 to 21 D FGR cumulative effect (1.45 vs. 1.51; P ≤ 0.02), and a 15 to 21 D (P ≤ 0.04) and 0 to 21 D (P ≤ 0.05) CP × AA interaction were also observed. Greater liver weight among 16.5 vs. 19.5 or 22.5% CP fed chicks was found at 14 and 21 D (P ≤ 0.0001 and P = 0.06, respectively). Lower dietary CP reduced spleen weight on day 21 birds (P ≤ 0.0005) with lighter spleens among 16.5 and 19.5% vs. the 22.5% CP fed group (0.090, 0.095, 0.119 g/100 g BW, respectively). Breast weight at 21 D was significantly less for 16.5 vs. 22.5% CP fed chicks. Fat pad weight on day 21 was heaviest among 16.5% chicks (P ≤ 0.0004). Overall, lowering dietary CP to 16.5% had a negative effect, but keto-acid supplementation supported 0 to 21 D broiler growth compared to SA; however, transamination efficiency of KA may be lower for 0 to 7D old chicks compared to older birds.

Brazil nut meal and spray-dried egg powders as alternatives to synthetic methionine in organic laying hen diets.

The United States organic poultry industry is currently facing a limitation on dietary inclusion of synthetic methionine (Met). This study investigated Brazil nut protein powder (BNPP), spray-dried egg white (SDEW), and spray-dried egg blend (70:30 albumen: yolk) (SDEB) as alternatives to synthetic Met in organic laying hen diets. A total of 270 Hy-Line Brown laying hens was fed 5 diets from 22 to 38 wk of age, with 6 replicates of 3 adjacent cages per diet and 3 hens per cage. Diets included a commercial control (COM) (non-organic with standard CP and synthetic Met), an organic control (ORG) (with no synthetic Met, but higher CP to meet Met requirements), and 3 organic treatment diets with no synthetic Met, but including BNPP, SDEW, or SDEB at levels to meet Met requirements. Egg production and quality, body weight (BW), feed intake, and manure nutrients and ammonia were assessed. Data were analyzed using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS, with Tukey's test used for multiple mean comparisons, and P ≤ 0.05 was deemed statistically significant. Body weight was greatest for the COM diet, and feed conversion improved for hens fed egg-based diets compared to controls. Egg weight and production did not differ between COM and treatment diets. The SDEW diet had greater albumen height and Haugh units compared to ORG and BNPP diets and greater percent albumen compared to COM and BNPP diets. Specific gravity was greatest for BNPP fed hens. Manure DM and potash were highest from COM and BNPP diets, respectively. Both egg-based diets increased ammonia flux relative to the COM diet. The BNPP and egg-based diets were lower in cost for $/metric tonne, $/dozen eggs, and $/kg of eggs compared to the ORG diet. The ingredients assessed herein could, therefore, cost-effectively replace synthetic Met in organic hen diets without negatively impacting egg production.

Effects of maternal immune activation on gene expression patterns in the fetal brain.

We are exploring the mechanisms underlying how maternal infection increases the risk for schizophrenia and autism in the offspring. Several mouse models of maternal immune activation (MIA) were used to examine the immediate effects of MIA induced by influenza virus, poly(I:C) and interleukin IL-6 on the fetal brain transcriptome. Our results indicate that all three MIA treatments lead to strong and common gene expression changes in the embryonic brain. Most notably, there is an acute and transient upregulation of the α, ß and γ crystallin gene family. Furthermore, levels of crystallin gene expression are correlated with the severity of MIA as assessed by placental weight. The overall gene expression changes suggest that the response to MIA is a neuroprotective attempt by the developing brain to counteract environmental stress, but at a cost of disrupting typical neuronal differentiation and axonal growth. We propose that this cascade of events might parallel the mechanisms by which environmental insults contribute to the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism.

Egg yolk and serum antibody titers of broiler breeder hens immunized with uricase and or urease.

This study evaluated whether broiler breeder hens immunized with uricase (UC), urease (UE), or UC + UE would develop antibody (IgY) titers against these enzymes to prevent manure-N degradation and NH(3) release. Ross × Arbor Acres hens were assigned to PBS (control), UC, UE, or UC + UE injection treatments. Each group had 19 hens per treatment. On d 0, each of the enzymes or PBS was emulsified with complete Freund's adjuvant and administered intramuscularly, whereas on d 7 and 14, a booster injection of PBS or enzymes was administered as an incomplete adjuvant. Blood samples were taken on d 0, 4, 9, 12, 17, 21, and 24 for serum-specific IgY titer analysis. Eggs were collected for yolk-specific IgY titer analysis. Manure samples were taken for nutrient, pH, and NH(3) measurements. Elevated egg yolk anti-UC-IgY titers were observed from UC-immunized hens after the second immunization (P ≤ 0.0001), and they remained higher than those of the PBS- or UE-immunized hens from d 9 to 24. After the first injection, egg yolk anti-UE-IgY titers from hens immunized with UE or the combined antigen were greater than those of birds injected with PBS or UC (P ≤ 0.01). The serum anti-UC-IgY response to UC immunization was observed after the first injection (P ≤ 0.01) and on d 9 (P ≤ 0.0001), and titers remained greater than those of hens immunized with PBS or UE until d 28. The serum anti-UE-IgY titers remained low until much later compared with the anti-UC-IgY titers. Only at 24 and 28 d were anti-UE-IgY titers significantly greater in the UE-immunized hens than in hens immunized with PBS or UC. Hens immunized with UC or UE responded with both egg yolk and serum IgY titers. The combined antigens were significantly greater than the PBS control but had less effect than the individual UC or UE in both the egg yolk and serum. These findings indicate that despite measurable egg yolk and serum IgY titers, immunizing hens with UC, UE, or the combined antigens did not affect the manure nutrients or NH(3) emissions of the treated hens.

Dietary camelina meal versus flaxseed with and without supplemental copper for broiler chickens: live performance and processing yield.

An experiment was conducted to compare the responses of young broiler chickens to corn-soybean meal diets supplemented with flaxseed or camelina meal versus a corn-soybean meal control and the factorial effect of 150 mg/kg of Cu supplementation on performance and processing yield. A randomized complete block design with a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement was used with 7 replicates from hatch to 21 d of age (n = 294; 7 chicks per replicate). Body weight of birds fed 10% camelina meal or 10% flaxseed was significantly reduced compared with the control birds. Addition of Cu significantly increased BW and feed consumption of the birds fed the control diet throughout the study. Copper supplementation to the 10% camelina meal diet also increased BW (P < 0.001) with no effect on feed consumption or feed conversion at 21 d. In addition, hot carcass weight, yield, and carcass parts were significantly improved among birds fed the Cu-supplemented control diet. A significant Cu x diet interaction was observed for hot carcass weight and yield, indicating Cu supplementation to the control diet was superior for carcass weight to the other treatments. However, yield was greater for the camelina diets and the control + Cu versus the other treatments. Results from the present study demonstrated that either 10% camelina meal or 10% flaxseed diets will reduce broiler BW when fed the first 3 wk of life. However, birds fed the camelina diet responded to Cu sulfate supplementation with improved live performance and carcass characteristics. Birds fed the 10% flaxseed diets showed no beneficial effect resulting from Cu supplements.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: production--part 1.

During Egg Safety Action Plan hearings in Washington, DC, many questions were raised concerning the egg temperature (T) used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study was initiated to determine the T of eggs from oviposition through distribution. In part 1; researchers gathered data on internal and surface egg T from commercial egg production facilities. An infrared thermometer was used to rapidly measure surface T, and internal T was determined by probing individual eggs. The main effects were geographic region (state) and season evaluated in a factorial design. Egg T data were recorded in the production facilities in standardized comparisons. Regression analysis (P < 0.0001) showed that the R(2) (0.952) between infrared egg surface T and internal T was very high, and validated further use of the infrared thermometer. Hen house egg surface and internal T were significantly influenced by state, season, and the state x season interaction. Mean hen house egg surface T was 27.3 and 23.8 degrees C for summer and winter, respectively, with 29.2 and 26.2 degrees C for egg internal T (P < 0.0001). Hen house eggs from California had the lowest surface and internal T in winter among all the states (P < 0.0001), whereas the highest egg surface T were recorded during summer in North Carolina, Georgia, and Texas, and the highest internal T were recorded from Texas and Georgia. Cooling of warm eggs following oviposition was significantly influenced by season, state, and their interaction. Egg internal T when 3/4 cool was higher in summer vs. winter and higher in North Carolina and Pennsylvania compared with Iowa. The time required to 3/4 cool eggs was greater in winter than summer and greater in Iowa than in other states. These findings showed seasonal and state impacts on ambient T in the hen house that ultimately influenced egg surface and internal T. More important, they showed opportunities to influence cooling rate to improve internal and microbial egg quality.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: processing--part 2.

The Egg Safety Action Plan released in 1999 raised questions concerning egg temperature used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study was initiated to determine the internal and external temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution. Researchers gathered data from commercial egg production, shell egg processing, and distribution facilities. The experimental design was a mixed model with 2 random effects for season and geographic region and a fixed effect for operation type (inline or offline). For this report, internal and external egg temperature data were recorded at specific points during shell egg processing in the winter and summer months. In addition, internal egg temperatures were recorded in pre- and postshell egg processing cooler areas. There was a significant season x geographic region interaction (P < 0.05) for both surface and internal temperatures. Egg temperatures were lower in the winter vs. summer, but eggs gained in temperature from the accumulator to the postshell egg processing cooler. During shell egg processing, summer egg surface and internal temperatures were greater (P < 0.05) than during the winter. When examining the effect of shell egg processing time and conditions, it was found that 2.4 and 3.8 degrees C were added to egg surface temperatures, and 3.3 and 6.0 degrees C were added to internal temperatures in the summer and winter, respectively. Internal egg temperatures were higher (P < 0.05) in the preshell egg processing cooler area during the summer vs. winter, and internal egg temperatures were higher (P < 0.05) in the summer when eggs were (3/4) cool (temperature change required to meet USDA-Agricultural Marketing Service storage regulation of 7.2 degrees C) in the postshell egg processing area. However, the cooling rate was not different (P > 0.05) for eggs in the postshell egg processing cooler area in the summer vs. winter. Therefore, these data suggest that season of year and geographic location can affect the temperature of eggs during shell egg processing and should be a component in future assessments of egg safety.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: transportation--part 3.

The Egg Safety Action Plan released in 1999 raised many questions concerning egg temperature used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study by researchers in California, Connecticut, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Texas was initiated to determine the internal and external temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution. Researchers gathered data from commercial egg production, processing, and distribution facilities. The experimental design was a mixed model with random effects for season and a fixed effect for duration of the transport period (long or short haul). It was determined that processors used refrigerated transport trucks (REFER) as short-term storage (STS) in both the winter and summer. Therefore, this summary of data obtained from REFER also examines the impact of their use as STS. Egg temperature data were recorded for specific loads of eggs during transport to point of resale or distribution to retailers. To standardize data comparisons between loads, they were segregated between long and short hauls. The summer egg temperatures were higher in the STS and during delivery. Egg temperature was not significantly reduced during the STS phase. Egg temperature decreases were less (P < 0.0001) during short delivery hauls 0.6 degrees C than during long hauls 7.8 degrees C. There was a significant season x delivery interaction (P < 0.05) for the change in the temperature differences between the egg and ambient temperature indicated as the cooling potential. This indicated that the ambient temperature during long winter deliveries had the potential to increase egg temperature. The REFER used as STS did not appreciably reduce internal egg temperature. These data suggest that the season of year affects the temperature of eggs during transport. Eggs are appreciably cooled on the truck, during the delivery phase, which was contrary to the original supposition that egg temperatures would remain static during refrigerated transport. These data indicate that refrigerated transport should be a component in future assessments of egg safety.

Vegetative buffers for fan emissions from poultry farms: 1. temperature and foliar nitrogen.

This study sought to evaluate the potential of trees planted around commercial poultry farms to trap ammonia (NH(3)), the gas of greatest environmental concern to the poultry industry. Four plant species (Norway spruce, Spike hybrid poplar, Streamco willow, and hybrid willow) were planted on eight commercial farms from 2003 to 2004. Because temperature (T) can be a stressor for trees, T was monitored in 2005 with data loggers among the trees in front of the exhaust fans (11.4 to 17.7 m) and at a control distance away from the fans (48 m) during all four seasons in Pennsylvania. Norway spruce (Picea abies) foliage samples were taken in August 2005 from one turkey and two layer farms for dry matter (DM) and nitrogen (N) analysis. The two layer farms had both Norway spruce and Spike hybrid poplar (Populus deltoides x Populus nigra) plantings sampled as well allowing comparisons of species and the effect of plant location near the fans versus a control distance away. Proximity to the fans had a clear effect on spruce foliar N with greater concentrations downwind of the fans than at control distances (3.03 vs. 1.88%; P < or = 0.0005). Plant location was again a significant factor for foliar N of both poplar and spruce on the two farms with both species showing greater N adjacent to the fans compared to the controls (3.75 vs. 2.32%; P < or = 0.0001). Pooled foliar DM of both plants was also greater among those near the fans (56.17, fan vs. 44.67%, control; P < or = 0.005). Species differences were also significant showing the potential of poplar to retain greater foliar N than spruce (3.52 vs. 2.55%; P < or = 0.001) with less DM (46.00 vs. 54.83%; P < or = 0.05) in a vegetative buffer setting. The results indicated plants were not stressed by the T near exhaust fans with mean seasonal T (13.04 vs. 13.03 degrees C, respectively) not significantly different from controls. This suggested poultry house exhaust air among the trees near the fans would not result in dormancy stressors on the plants compared to controls away from the fans.

Vegetative buffers for fan emissions from poultry farms: 2. ammonia, dust and foliar nitrogen.

This study evaluated the potential of trees planted around commercial poultry farms to trap ammonia (NH(3)) and dust or particulate matter (PM). Norway spruce, Spike hybrid poplar, hybrid willow, and Streamco purpleosier willow were planted on five commercial farms from 2003 to 2004. Plant foliage was sampled in front of the exhaust fans and at a control distance away from the fans on one turkey, two laying hen, and two broiler chicken farms between June and July 2006. Samples were analyzed for dry matter (DM), nitrogen (N), and PM content. In addition, NH(3) concentrations were measured downwind of the exhaust fans among the trees and at a control distance using NH(3) passive dosi-tubes. Foliage samples were taken and analyzed separately based on plant species. The two layer farms had both spruce and poplar plantings whereas the two broiler farms had hybrid willow and Streamco willow plantings which allowed sampling and species comparisons with the effect of plant location (control vs. fan). The results showed that NH(3) concentration h(- 1) was reduced by distance from housing fans (P < or = 0.0001), especially between 0 m (12.01 ppm), 11.4 m (2.59 ppm), 15 m (2.03 ppm), and 30 m (0.31 ppm). Foliar N of plants near the fans was greater than those sampled away from the fans for poplar (3.87 vs. 2.56%; P < or = 0.0005) and hybrid willow (3.41 vs. 3.02%; P < or = 0.05). The trends for foliar N in spruce (1.91 vs. 1.77%; P = 0.26) and Streamco willow (3.85 vs. 3.33; P = 0.07) were not significant. Pooling results of the four plant species indicated greater N concentration from foliage sampled near the fans than of that away from the fans (3.27 vs. 2.67%; P < or = 0.0001). Foliar DM concentration was not affected by plant location, and when pooled the foliar DM of the four plant species near the fans was 51.3% in comparison with 48.5% at a control distance. There was a significant effect of plant location on foliar N and DM on the two layer farms with greater N and DM adjacent to fans than at a control distance (2.95 vs. 2.15% N and 45.4 vs. 38.2% DM, respectively). There were also significant plant species effects on foliar N and DM with poplar retaining greater N (3.22 vs. 1.88%) and DM (43.7 vs. 39.9%) than spruce. The interaction of location by species (P < or = 0.005) indicated that poplar was more responsive in terms of foliar N, but less responsive for DM than spruce. The effect of location and species on foliar N and DM were not clear among the two willow species on the broiler farms. Plant location had no effect on plant foliar PM weight, but plant species significantly influenced the ability of the plant foliage to trap PM with spruce and hybrid willow showing greater potential than poplar and Streamco willow for PM(2.5)(0.0054, 0.0054, 0.0005, and 0.0016 mg cm(- 2); P < or = 0.05) and total PM (0.0309, 0.0102, 0.0038, and 0.0046 mg cm(- 2), respectively; P < or = 0.001). Spruce trapped more dust compared to the other three species (hybrid willow, poplar, and Streamco willow) for PM(10) (0.0248 vs. 0.0036 mg cm(- 2); P < or = 0.0001) and PM(> 10) (0.0033 vs. 0.0003 mg cm(- 2); P = 0.052). This study indicates that poplar, hybrid willow, and Streamco willow are appropriate species to absorb poultry house aerial NH(3)-N, whereas spruce and hybrid willow are effective traps for dust and its associated odors.

Growth and foliar nitrogen status of four plant species exposed to atmospheric ammonia.

A chamber study was conducted to evaluate the growth response and leaf nitrogen (N) status of four plant species exposed to continuous ammonia (NH3) for 12 weeks (wk). This was intended to evaluate appropriate plant species that could be used to trap discharged NH3 from the exhaust fans in poultry feeding operations before moving off-site. Two hundred and forty bare-root plants of four species (Juniperus virginiana (red cedar), Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis (thornless honey locust), Populus sp. (hybrid poplar), and Phalaris arundinacea (reed canary grass) were transplanted into 4- or 8-L polyethylene pots and grown in four environmentally controlled chambers. Plants placed in two of the four chambers received continuous exposure to anhydrous NH3 at 4 to 5 ppm while plants in another two chambers received no NH3. In each of the four chambers, 2 to 4 plants per species received no fertilizer while the rest of the plants were fertilized with a 100 ppm solution containing 21% N, 7% phosphorus, and 7% potassium. The results showed that honey locust was the fastest-growing species. The superior growth of honey locust among all species was also supported by its total biomass, root, and root dry matter (DM) weights. For all species there was a trend for plants exposed to NH3 to have greater leaf DM than their non-exposed counterparts at 6 (43.0 vs. 30.8%; P = 0.09) and 12 wk (47.9 vs. 36.6%; P = 0.07), and significantly greater (P

Ammonium-nitrogen transformation and nitrogen retention in broiler manure supplemented with a soil amendment containing nitrifying bacteria.

The effect of a soil amendment on ammonium nitrogen transformation and nitrogen retention in broiler manure was evaluated. Prior to incubation, broiler manure was mixed with autoclaved soil or non-autoclaved soil in different ratios to make 1 kg mixtures; broiler manure:non-autoclaved soil=9:1, 5:5, and 1:9 or broiler manure:autoclaved soil=9:1, 5:5, and 1:9. The non-autoclaved soil treatment reduced either numerically or significantly NH(4)(+)-N concentration compared to the autoclaved soil treatment during the 8-wk incubation. Total-N concentration of the non-autoclaved soil treatments was lower than the autoclaved soil treatments from 4 to 8 wk. The lowest manure to non-autoclaved soil treatment (M:S=1:9) had considerably more nitrite and nitrate; however, the higher ratio manure to non-autoclaved soil treatments (M:S=9:1 and 5:5) had slightly higher total nitrite and nitrate levels compared to the same ratio of autoclaved soil treatments. The moisture level of the 9:1, 5:5, and 1:9 M:S treatments were approximately 70, 45, and 30%, respectively. The results indicated that nitrifying bacteria in the non-autoclaved soil reduced the ammonium nitrogen concentrations of poultry manure by converting NH(3) or NH(4)(+) to NO(2)(-) or NO(3)(-). However, the higher moisture levels in treatments with greater manure to soil ratios (M:S=9:1 and 5:5) created anaerobic conditions that allowed for denitrification and greater N losses.

Effects of dietary zinc supplementation on hen performance, ammonia volatilization, and nitrogen retention in manure.

This investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effects of dietary ZnSO4 supplementation on ammonia volatilization and nitrogen retention in hen manure. One hundred twenty, 45-wk-old commercial Leghorn laying hens were sequentially fed diets with 1000, 2000, and 3000 ppm Zn as ZnSO4 (Zn-1000, Zn-2000, and Zn-3000), then followed by two control dietary periods with 114 ppm Zn (Control-1 and Control-2) for a total of five consecutive eight-day experiment periods, respectively. When hens were fed the 1000 and 2000 ppm Zn treatment diets, room ammonia levels were significantly reduced compared to the control diets. Dietary Zn treatments reduced the decomposition of uric acid, resulting in an increase in manure total-N retention compared to the control fed birds. The 1000 ppm Zn supplement had no adverse effects on hen body weight, feed consumption, egg production, egg weight, albumen height, or shell thickness. However, hens fed the diet containing 3000 ppm Zn had significantly depressed body weight, feed consumption, egg production, egg weight, and shell thickness. Zinc levels of egg contents increased linearly as dietary Zn levels increased. These levels in eggs would not be a problem for human consumption because these are much less than the daily Zn recommended dietary allowance. Although land application of such manure will not cause environmental problems or crop toxicity, proper monitoring of soil and crop Zn levels and effective nutrient management planning would be well advised.

Efficacy of electrolyzed oxidizing water for the microbial safety and quality of eggs.

During commercial processing, eggs are washed in an alkaline detergent and then rinsed with chlorine to reduce dirt, debris, and microorganism levels. The alkaline and acidic fractions of electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water have the ability to fit into the 2-step commercial egg washing process easily if proven to be effective. Therefore, the efficacy of EO water to decontaminate Salmonella Enteritidis and Escherichia coli K12 on artificially inoculated shell eggs was investigated. For the in vitro study, eggs were soaked in alkaline EO water followed by soaking in acidic EO water at various temperatures and times. Treated eggs showed a reduction in population between > or = 0.6 to > or =2.6 log10 cfu/g of shell for S. Enteritidis and > or =0.9 and > or =2.6 log10 for E. coli K12. Log10 reductions of 1.7 and 2.0 for S. Enteritidis and E. coli K12, respectively, were observed for typical commercial detergent-sanitizer treatments, whereas log10 reductions of > or =2.1 and > or =2.3 for S. Enteritidis and E. coli K12, respectively, were achieved using the EO water treatment. For the pilot-scale study, both fractions of EO water were compared with the detergent-sanitizer treatment using E. coli K12. Log10 reductions of > or = 2.98 and > or = 2.91 were found using the EO water treatment and the detergent-sanitizer treatment, respectively. The effects of 2 treatments on egg quality were investigated. EO water and the detergent-sanitizer treatments did not significantly affect albumen height or eggshell strength; however, there were significant affects on cuticle presence. These results indicate that EO water has the potential to be used as a sanitizing agent for the egg washing process.

Effect of heat stress on production parameters and immune responses of commercial laying hens.

The present study was conducted to determine the adverse effects of high temperature and humidity not only on live performance and egg quality but also on immune function in commercial laying hens. One hundred eighty 31-wk-old laying hens at peak production were used in this study. Hens were housed in cages (15 cages of 4 birds/cage) in each of 3 environmental chambers and received 1 of 3 treatments. The 3 treatments were control (average temperature and relative humidity), cyclic (daily cyclic temperature and humidity), and heat stress (constant heat and humidity) for 5 wk. Different production and immune parameters were measured. Body weight and feed consumption were significantly reduced in hens in the heat stress group. Egg production, egg weight, shell weight, shell thickness, and specific gravity were significantly inhibited among hens in the heat stress group. Likewise, total white blood cell (WBC) counts and antibody production were significantly inhibited in hens in the heat stress group. In addition, mortality was higher in the heat stress group compared to the cyclic and control groups. Even though T- and B-lymphocyte activities were not significantly affected by any of the treatments, lymphocytes from hens in the heat stress group had the least activity at 1 wk following treatment. These results indicate that heat stress not only adversely affects production performance but also inhibits immune function.

Effects of dietary zinc supplementation on broiler performance and nitrogen loss from manure.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of ZnSO4 or ZnO supplementation of broiler diets on growth performance and loss of uric acid N and total N from manure. A total of 240, 1-d-old broiler males were used for this experiment. Each dietary treatment was replicated 3 times with 10 birds per replicate. Chicks were fed a control diet for the first 6 d and then treatment diets for the next 12 d. There were 8 dietary treatments: the control, CuSO4-20, ZnSO4-500, ZnSO4-1,000, ZnSO4-1,500, ZnO-500, ZnO-1,000, and ZnO-1,500 containing 0, 0, 500, 1,000, 1,500 ppm supplemental Zn as ZnSO4 and 500, 1,000, and 1,500 ppm supplemental Zn as ZnO, respectively. A 300-g sample of the broiler manure from each treatment was incubated in a pan for 3 wk at room temperature. After incubation, samples were collected for the measurement of total N and uric acid N. Weight gain, feed consumption, and feed efficiency of chicks fed the diets supplemented with 1,500 ppm Zn as ZnSO4 were significantly lower than those of the other treatments, whereas the ZnO treatments had no negative effects on growth performance. After the 21-d incubation, the uric acid-N levels of manure from chicks fed the ZnO-1,000 treatment were significantly higher than those of manure from chicks fed the ZnSO4-500. The manure from chicks fed the Zn-supplemented diets had significantly less total N loss compared with that from chicks fed the control. The manure from chicks fed ZnO-1,500 had significantly less total N loss than that from chicks fed the other treatment diets. This study indicated that the Zn treatments significantly reduced nitrogen loss in poultry manure, and ZnO could be a better Zn source to prevent nitrogen loss to the atmosphere without any detrimental effect on growth performance.

Production of an egg yolk antibody specific to microbial uricase and its inhibitory effects on uricase activity.

Ammonia gas produced from poultry manure can be a potential source of environmental pollution. Microbial uricase in poultry manure is an important target enzyme to reduce ammonia production because ammonia is mainly generated from the microbial decomposition of uric acid in the manure. Thus, the inhibition of microbial uricase is critical in preventing NH3 volatilization. A potential method of inhibiting uricase activity is the use of antibodies specific to microbial uricase. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate 1) the production of the uricase-specific egg yolk antibody (IgY) from immunized hens and 2) the effect of the uricase-specific IgY on the activity of uricase. A total of 12 Single Comb White Leghorn hens were injected intramuscularly with uricase from Arthrobacter globiformis. The hens were immunized a second and third time at 1 and 2 wk, respectively, after the initial injection. The production of uricase-specific IgY was first detected at 2 wk after the initial immunization, and levels increased more than threefold at 4 wk. The method including water extraction, ammonium sulfate precipitation, and ethanol precipitation showed the most acceptable IgY purity and over 97% uricase-specific IgY recovery. Finally, the effect of the uricase-specific IgY on uricase activity was determined by a uricase assay. The slope ratio showed that the immune-IgY from the uricase-immunized hens and nonimmune IgY from nonimmunized control hens reduced uricase degradation by 58 and 43%, respectively, compared to the uricase treatment. The regression slope indicated that the immune IgY and nonimmune IgY treatments had a significant inhibitory effects on uricase activity compared to the uricase.

In situ evaluation of hen mortality meal as a protein supplement for dairy cows.

A study was conducted to evaluate the nutritional composition and in situ degradation of hen mortality meals. There were four treatments: control autoclaved hen meal (C-HM), enzyme-treated, fermented, autoclaved hen meal (E-HM), NaOH-treated, fermented, autoclaved hen meal (NaOH-HM), and soybean meal (SBM). For the E-HM or NaOH-HM, hen mortality was treated with a feather digesting enzyme or NaOH to improve digestibility of feathers on the carcass. After the enzyme or NaOH treatment, treated hen mortality was preserved by a fermentation procedure. The crude protein levels of the C-HM and SBM were higher than the E-HM and NaOH-HM, and the concentration of fat in the C-HM was higher than the other treatments. Levels of Lys, Thr, Arg, Ile, Leu, Val, and Phe for the C-HM and SBM were higher than in the E-HM and NaOH-HM. The Met, Cys, and Gly levels in the C-HM were higher than the soybean meal. In situ ruminal degradation data showed that the C-HM had lower dry matter and crude protein degradation than the other treatments, whereas the E-HM or NaOH-HM was more susceptible to ruminal degradation. These results indicate that the C-HM has higher levels of crude protein, amino acids, and resistance to ruminal degradation, whereas the E-HM or NaOH-HM was more digestible to ruminal microorganisms.