Therapeutic plasma exchange is feasible and tolerable in severely injured patients with trauma-induced coagulopathy.

Objectives: Trauma-induced coagulopathy (TIC) occurs in a subset of severely injured trauma patients. Despite having achieved surgical hemostasis, these individuals can have persistent bleeding, clotting, or both in conjunction with deranged coagulation parameters and typically require transfusion support with plasma, platelets, and/or cryoprecipitate. Due to the multifactorial nature of TIC, targeted interventions usually do not have significant clinical benefits. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is a non-specific modality of removing and replacing a patient's plasma in a euvolemic manner that can temporarily normalize coagulation parameters and remove deleterious substances, and may be beneficial in such patients with TIC. Methods: In a prospective case series, TPE was performed in severely injured trauma patients diagnosed with TIC and transfusion requirement. These individuals all underwent a series of at least 3 TPE procedures performed once daily with plasma as the exclusive replacement fluid. Demographic, injury, laboratory, TPE, and outcome data were collected and analyzed. Results: In total, 7 patients received 23 TPE procedures. All patients had marked improvements in routine coagulation parameters, platelet counts, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with a thrombospondin type 1 motif, member 13 (ADAMTS13) activities, inflammatory markers including interleukin-6 concentrations, and organ system injuries after completion of their TPE treatments. All-cause mortality rates at 1 day, 7 days, and 30 days were 0%, 0%, and 43%, respectively, and all patients for whom TPE was initiated within 24 hours after injury survived to the 30-day timepoint. Surgical, critical care, and apheresis nursing personnel who were surveyed were universally positive about the utilization of TPE in this patient population. These procedures were tolerated well with the most common adverse event being laboratory-diagnosed hypocalcemia. Conclusion: TPE is feasible and tolerable in severely injured trauma patients with TIC. However, many questions remain regarding the application of TPE for these critically ill patients including identification of the optimal injured population, ideal time of treatment initiation, appropriate treatment intensity, and concurrent use of adjunctive treatments. Level of evidence: Level V.

Understanding the burden of traumatic injuries at the United States-Mexico border: A scoping review of the literature.

ABSTRACT: The US-Mexico border is the busiest land crossing in the world and faces continuously increasing numbers of undocumented border crossers. Significant barriers to crossing are present in many regions of the border, including walls, bridges, rivers, canals, and the desert, each with unique features that can cause traumatic injury. The number of patients injured attempting to cross the border is also increasing, but significant knowledge gaps regarding these injuries and their impacts remain. The purpose of this scoping literature review is to describe the current state of trauma related to the US-Mexico border to draw attention to the problem, identify knowledge gaps in the existing literature, and introduce the creation of a consortium made up of representatives from border trauma centers in the Southwestern United States, the Border Region Doing Research on Trauma Consortium. Consortium members will collaborate to produce multicenter up-to-date data on the medical impact of the US-Mexico border, helping to elucidate the true magnitude of the problem and shed light on the impact cross-border trauma has on migrants, their families, and the US health care system. Only once the problem is fully described can meaningful solutions be provided.

What happens after they survive? The role of anticoagulants and antiplatelets in IVC injuries.

Background: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) after an inferior vena cava (IVC) injury is a devastating complication. Current practice involves variable use of anticoagulation and antiplatelet (AC/AP) agents. We hypothesized that AC/AP can reduce the incidence of VTE and that delayed institution of AC/AP is associated with increased VTE events. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed IVC injuries cared for at a large urban adult academic level 1 trauma center between January 1, 2008 and December 31, 2020, surviving 72 hours. Patient demographics, injury mechanism, surgical repair, type and timing of AC, and type and timing of VTE events were characterized. Postoperative AC status during hospital course before an acute VTE event was delineated by grouping patients into four categories: full, prophylactic, prophylactic with concomitant AP, and none. The primary outcome was the incidence of an acute VTE event. IVC ligation was excluded from analysis. Results: Of the 76 patients sustaining an IVC injury, 26 were included. The incidence of a new deep vein thrombosis distal to the IVC injury and a new pulmonary embolism was 31% and 15%, respectively. The median onset of VTE was 5 days (IQR 1-11). Four received full AC, 10 received prophylactic AC with concomitant AP, 8 received prophylactic AC, and 4 received no AC/AP. New VTE events occurred in 0.0% of full, in 30.0% of prophylactic with concomitant AP, in 50.0% of prophylactic, and in 50.0% without AC/AP. There was no difference in baseline demographics, injury mechanisms, surgical interventions, and bleeding complications. Discussion: This is the first study to suggest that delay and degree of antithrombotic initiation in an IVC-injured patient may be associated with an increase in VTE events. Consideration of therapy initiation should be performed on hemostatic stabilization. Future studies are necessary to characterize the optimal dosing and temporal timing of these therapies. Level of evidence: Therapeutic, level 3.

Ketamine infusion for pain control in elderly patients with multiple rib fractures: Results of a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Rib fractures are associated with increased mortality, particularly in the elderly. While opiate-based pain regimens remain the cornerstone of rib fracture management, issues related to opioids have driven research into alternative analgesics. Adjunctive ketamine use in lieu of opioids continues to increase but little evidence exists to support its efficacy or safety within the elderly trauma population. METHODS: A prospective, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of elderly patients (age, ≥65 years) with three or more rib fractures admitted to a Level I trauma center was conducted. Exclusion criteria included Glasgow Coma Scale score less than 14, and chronic opiate use. Groups were randomized to either low-dose ketamine (LDK) at 2 µg·kg·min or an equivalent rate of 0.9% normal saline. The primary outcome was reduction in numeric pain scores (NPS). Secondary outcomes included oral morphine equivalent (OME) utilization, epidural rates, pulmonary complications, and adverse events. RESULTS: Thirty (50.8%) of 59 were randomized to the experimental arm. Groups were similar in makeup. Low-dose ketamine failed to reduce 24-hour NPS or OME totals. Subgroup analysis of 24 patients with Injury Severity Score greater than 15 demonstrated that LDK was associated with a reduction in OME utilization the first 24-hours (25.6 mg vs. 42.6 mg, p = 0.04) but at no other time points. No difference in other secondary outcomes or adverse events was noted. CONCLUSION: Low-dose ketamine failed to affect NPS or OME within the overall cohort, but a decrease in OME was observed in those with an Injury Severity Score greater than 15. Additional studies are necessary to confirm whether LDK benefits severely injured elderly patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, level I.

Ketamine infusion for pain control in adult patients with multiple rib fractures: Results of a randomized control trial.

BACKGROUND: Rib fractures occur in up to 40% of trauma patients and are associated with increased mortality. Opiate-based pain regimens remain the cornerstone of rib fracture management; however, concerns around opioids have fostered interest in alternative analgesics. Ketamine is currently being used in lieu of opioids, but little evidence exists supporting its use within the trauma population. METHODS: A prospective, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of adult patients with three or more rib fractures admitted to a Level I trauma center was conducted. Exclusion criteria included age older than 64 years, Glasgow Coma Scale score less than 13, and chronic opiate use. The experimental arm received low-dose ketamine (LDK) at 2.5 µg·kg·min while the placebo cohort received an equivalent rate of 0.9% normal saline. All infusions were continued for 48 hours. The primary outcome was reduction in numeric pain score (NPS) during the first 24 hours. Secondary outcomes studied included oral morphine equivalent (OME) utilization, length of stay, epidural rates, pulmonary complications, and adverse events. RESULTS: Forty-five (49%) of 91 patients were randomized to the experimental arm. Both groups were similar in makeup. Overall, 74.7% were male, had a median age of 49 years, and an Injury Severity Score (ISS) of 14. Low-dose ketamine was not associated with a significant reduction in 24-hour NPS or OME totals. Subgroup analysis of 45 severely injured patients (ISS, >15) demonstrated that LDK was associated with a significant reduction in OME utilization during the first 24 hours (35.7 vs. 68, p = 0.03), 24 hours to 48 hours (64.2 vs. 96, p = 0.03), and overall (152.1 vs. 198, p = 0.048). No difference in other secondary outcomes or adverse events was noted. CONCLUSION: Low-dose ketamine failed to decrease NPS or OME within the overall cohort, but a decrease in OME was observed among patients with an ISS greater than 15. Confirmatory studies are necessary to determine if LDK is a useful adjunct among severely injured patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level II.

Thoracic irrigation prevents retained hemothorax: A prospective propensity scored analysis.

BACKGROUND: Thoracic trauma resulting in hemothorax (HTx) is typically managed with thoracostomy tube (TT) placement; however, up to 20% of patients develop retained HTx which may necessitate further intervention for definitive management. Although optimal management of retained HTx has been extensively researched, little is known about prevention of this complication. We hypothesized that thoracic irrigation at the time of TT placement would significantly decrease the rate of retained HTx necessitating secondary intervention. METHODS: A prospective, comparative study of patients with traumatic HTx who underwent bedside TT placement was conducted. The control group consisted of patients who underwent standard TT placement, whereas the irrigation group underwent standard TT placement with immediate irrigation using 1 L of warmed sterile 0.9% saline. Patients who underwent emergency thoracotomy, those with TTs removed within 24 hours, or those who died within 30 days of discharge were excluded. The primary end point was secondary intervention defined by additional TT placement or operative management for retained HTx. A propensity-matched analysis was performed with scores estimated using a logistic regression model based on age, sex, mechanism of injury, Abbreviated Injury Scale chest score, and TT size. RESULTS: In over a 30-month period, a total of 296 patients underwent TT placement for the management of traumatic HTx. Patients were predominantly male (79.6%) at a median age of 40 years and were evenly split between blunt (48.8%) and penetrating (51.2%) mechanisms. Sixty (20%) patients underwent thoracic irrigation at time of initial TT placement. The secondary intervention rate was significantly lower within the study group (5.6% vs. 21.8%; OR, 0.16; p < 0.001). No significant differences in TT duration, ventilator days, or length of stay were noted between the irrigation and control cohort. CONCLUSION: Thoracic irrigation at the time of initial TT placement for traumatic HTx significantly reduced the need for secondary intervention for retained HTx. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Study, Level III.

Thoracostomy tube function not trajectory dictates reintervention.

BACKGROUND: Hemothorax and/or pneumothorax can be managed successfully managed with tube thoracostomy (TT) in the majority of cases. Improperly placed tubes are common with rates near 30%. This study aimed to determine whether TT trajectory affects the rate of secondary intervention. METHODS: A retrospective review of all adult trauma patients undergoing TT placement over a 4-y period was performed. TT trajectory was classified as ideal, nonideal, or kinked-based on anterior-posterior chest x-ray. TTs with sentinel port outside the thoracic cavity were excluded. The primary outcome was any secondary intervention. RESULTS: Four-hundred eighty-six patients and a total of 547 hemithoraces underwent placement and met inclusion criteria. The majority of patients were male (76%), with a median age of 41 y, and majority suffered blunt trauma ideal trajectory was identified in 429 (78.4%). Kinked TTs were noted in 33 (6%) hemothoraces with a 45.5% replacement rate. Review with staff demonstrates inherent bias to replace kinked TTs. The overall secondary intervention rate was 27.8%. Kinked TTs were removed from final analysis due to treatment bias. Subsequent analysis demonstrated no significant difference between ideal and nonideal trajectories (25.1% versus 34.1%, P = 0.09). CONCLUSIONS: Intrathoracic trajectory of nonkinked TTs with the sentinel port within the thoracic cavity does not affect secondary intervention rates, including the rate of surgical intervention.

A dual-stage approach to contaminated, high-risk ventral hernia repairs.

BACKGROUND: The Modified Hernia Grading System (MHGS) was developed to risk stratify complex ventral hernia repairs (VHRs). MHGS grade 3 patients have mesh infections, dirty or contaminated fields, and/or violation of the alimentary tract. Reported surgical site infection (SSI) rates are over 40% after single-stage VHR in contaminated fields. In an attempt to decrease the SSI rate in MHGS grade 3 patients, we developed a dual-stage VHR (DSVHR) approach. METHODS: We reviewed adult general surgery patients undergoing DSVHR between January 2010 and June 2014. All patients were MHGS grade 3. Primary end point was 30-d superficial and deep SSI. Secondary end points included other surgical site occurrences, 6-mo recurrence, and mesh excision rates. RESULTS: Fifteen patients underwent DSVHR. Mean age was 56 y, and median body mass index was 38.3 kg/m(2). Operative indication included enterocutaneous fistulas (ECF; n = 6), ECF with infected mesh (n = 2), infected mesh (n = 2), and VHR requiring bowel resection (n = 5). Thirty-one operative procedures were performed with median of 2.5 d between procedures. Fascial closure was re-established in 12 patients; five patients had underlay biologic mesh placement; seven underwent component separation with retrorectus mesh placement (synthetic [n = 2], biologic [n = 5]). The remaining patients underwent bridging repair with biologic mesh. One patient developed a recurrence after 6 mo, whereas a single patient had a recurrence of their ECF. Four (27%) patients developed a SSI, with an additional four (27%) experiencing a surgical site occurrence. There were no postoperative mesh infections. CONCLUSIONS: DSVHR in MHGS grade 3 patients is associated with a lower SSI rate than previously reported for those undergoing single-stage repairs.

Negative pressure therapy is effective in abdominal incision closure.

BACKGROUND: CDC wound classification demonstrates surgical site infection (SSI) occurs in 15%-30% of contaminated (class III) and >30% of dirty-infected (class IV) wounds. Several techniques have been used to decrease SSI rates in midline laparotomy incisions; however, no technique has shown superiority. Evidence suggests incisional negative pressure wound therapy (INPWT) can decrease wound complications, but no literature exists regarding INPWT for high-risk laparotomy incisions. We sought to analyze the efficacy of INPWT in the management of high-risk midline laparotomy incisions. METHODS: Retrospective review of adult patients who underwent laparotomy between January 2013 and June 2014 with midline closure using INPWT. Only class III or IV wounds were included. Laparotomy incisions were loosely closed. INPWT set at 125 mm Hg is placed over oil emulsion impregnated gauze. INPWT is removed after 5 d and the wound left open to air. Records were reviewed for immediate and/or delayed surgical site complications. Primary end point was 30-d incisional SSI. Secondary end points included other surgical site complications. RESULTS: One class III and 12 class IV wounds were treated with INPWT for a median of 5 d. The class III wound developed a small skin dehiscence with no evidence of superficial or deep SSI. Among class IV wounds, the rate of superficial and deep incisional SSI was 25% and 0%, respectively. The overall surgical site complication rate was 41.7%. CONCLUSIONS: INPWT in closure of high-risk midline laparotomy incisions is a safe, effective method of wound closure with equivalent SSI rates to previously described methods.

Thoracic irrigation prevents retained hemothorax: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Upward of 20% of patients undergoing thoracostomy tube (TT) placement develop retained hemothorax (HTx) requiring secondary intervention. The aim of this study was to define the rate of secondary intervention in patients undergoing prophylactic thoracic irrigation. METHODS: A prospective observational trial of 20 patients who underwent thoracic irrigation at the time of TT placement was conducted. Patients with HTx identified on chest x-ray were included. After standard placement of a 36-French TT, the HTx was evacuated using a sterile suction catheter advanced within the TT. Warmed sterile saline was instilled into the chest through the TT followed by suction catheter evacuation. The TT was connected to the sterile drainage atrium and suction applied. TTs were managed in accordance with our standard division protocol. RESULTS: The population was predominantly (70%) male at median age 35 years, median ISS 13, with 55% suffering penetrating trauma. Thirteen (65%) patients underwent TT placement within 6 h of trauma with the remainder within 24 h. Nineteen patients received the full 1000-mL irrigation. The majority demonstrated significant improvement on postprocedure chest x-ray. The secondary intervention rate was 5%. A single patient required VATS on post-trauma day zero for retained HTx. Median TT duration was 5 d with median length of stay of 7 d. No adverse events related to the pleural lavage were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Thoracic irrigation at the time of TT placement for traumatic HTx may decrease the rate of retained HTx.

Blunt abdominal aortic injury: a Western Trauma Association multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Blunt abdominal aortic injury (BAAI) is a rare injury. The objective of the current study was to examine the presentation and management of BAAI at a multi-institutional level. METHODS: The Western Trauma Association Multi-Center Trials conducted a study of BAAI from 1996 to 2011. Data collected included demographics, injury mechanism, associated injuries, interventions, and complications. RESULTS: Of 392,315 blunt trauma patients, 113 (0.03%) presented with BAAI at 12 major trauma centers (67% male; median age, 38 years; range, 6-88; median Injury Severity Score [ISS], 34; range, 16-75). The leading cause of injury was motor vehicle collisions (60%). Hypotension was documented in 47% of the cases. The most commonly associated injuries were spine fractures (44%) and pneumothorax/hemothorax (42%). Solid organ, small bowel, and large bowel injuries occurred in 38%, 35%, and 28% respectively. BAAI presented as free aortic rupture (32%), pseudoaneurysm (16%), and injuries without aortic external contour abnormality on computed tomography such as large intimal flaps (34%) or intimal tears (18%). Open and endovascular repairs were undertaken as first-choice therapy in 43% and 15% of cases, respectively. Choice of management varied by type of BAAI: 89% of intimal tears were managed nonoperatively, and 96% of aortic ruptures were treated with open repair. Overall mortality was 39%, the majority (68%) occurring in the first 24 hours because of hemorrhage or cardiac arrest. The highest mortality was associated with Zone II aortic ruptures (92%). Follow-up was documented in 38% of live discharges. CONCLUSION: This is the largest BAAI series reported to date. BAAI presents as a spectrum of injury ranging from minimal aortic injury to aortic rupture. Nonoperative management is successful in uncomplicated cases without external aortic contour abnormality on computed tomography. Highest mortality occurred in free aortic ruptures, suggesting that alternative measures of early noncompressible torso hemorrhage control are warranted. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiologic study, level III; therapeutic study, level IV.

A case study in intra-abdominal sepsis.

Intra-abdominal infections are a common problem for the general surgeon and major sources of morbidity and mortality in the intensive care unit. Some of these patients present with peritonitis that can rapidly progress to septic shock. The basic principles of care include prompt resuscitation, antibiotics, and source control. This article will use a detailed case study to outline the management of a patient with severe intra-abdominal infection from diverticulitis from initial resuscitation to reconstruction. Components of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign as they pertain to surgical patients are discussed and updated, and the concept of damage control general surgery is applied.

Minimal aortic injury after blunt trauma: selective nonoperative management is safe.

BACKGROUND: An increasing number of minimal aortic injuries (MAIs) are being identified with modern computed tomography (CT) imaging techniques. The optimal management and natural history of these injuries are unknown. We have adopted a policy of selective multidisciplinary nonoperative management of MAI. This study examines our experience with these patients from July 2004 to June 2009. METHODS: Retrospective chart review of all blunt trauma patients who underwent chest CT angiography to evaluate for blunt aortic injury (BAI) was undertaken. All patients deemed to have a MAI were managed nonoperatively, and those with a severe aortic injury underwent repair. Data collected included age, mechanism of injury, Injury Severity Score, type and location of aortic injury, intensive care unit length of stay (LOS), overall LOS, ventilator days, disposition, and mortality. In addition, all BAIs were graded according to the Presley Trauma Center CT Grading System of Aortic Injury. RESULTS: Forty-seven patients with BAI were identified. Thirty-two were classified as severe injuries, and 15 were considered MAI (32%). Nineteen underwent operative repair, 13 underwent endovascular stent graft repair, and 15 were managed nonoperatively. The average Injury Severity Score was 31 ± 10, and the average age was 44 ± 20 with no significant difference across treatment groups. There was no difference in overall or intensive care unit LOS. The nonoperative group had a shorter duration of ventilator days (1.1 vs. 4.28, p = 0.02). There were five deaths, none in the nonoperative group. None of these patients required subsequent intervention. All nonoperative patients had follow-up imaging at median of 4 days; on CT chest angiography, five injuries had resolved, eight had stable intimal flaps or pseudoaneurysm, and two had no detectable injury on subsequent aortogram. CONCLUSION: Almost one-third of our BAI were safely managed nonoperatively. Patients with MAI should be considered for selective nonoperative management in a multidisciplinary approach with close radiographic follow-up. We recommend that patients with MAIs should be considered for selective nonoperative management.

Intraabdominal vascular injury: are we getting any better?

BACKGROUND: Intraabdominal vascular injury (IAVI) as a result of penetrating and blunt trauma carries a high mortality rate. This study was performed to compare current mortality rates with a previously reported historic control. METHODS: The experience at our institution from 1970 to 1981 was previously reported with an overall mortality rate of 32% in 112 patients with penetrating IAVI. In a retrospective analysis, this historic cohort was compared with 248 patients with penetrating and blunt IAVI during a 138-month interval ending in June 2007. RESULTS: Overall mortality rate was 28.6%. The most commonly injured arteries were the iliac artery, aorta, and superior mesenteric artery. The most commonly injured veins were the inferior vena cava, iliac vein, and portal vein. Injury to the aorta, IVC, and portal vein had the highest mortality rates of 67.8%, 42.1%, and 66.6%, respectively. One hundred forty-four patients with one vessel injured had a mortality rate of 18.7%, whereas those with more than one vessel injured had a mortality rate of 48.7% (p < 0.001). A total of 46% of 117 patients in shock died compared with 9.6% of 104 patients not in shock (p < 0.001). Patients with a base deficit of less than -15 had a mortality rate of 72%, whereas those with a base deficit of 0 to -15 (p < 0.001) had a mortality rate of 18.9%. There was no difference in the overall mortality rate for penetrating trauma compared with the previous study. CONCLUSIONS: Although over 20 years have passed, no significant changes have occurred in the mortality associated with IAVI. Patients presenting in shock with IAVI continue to have a high mortality rate.