Neutrophil accumulation within tissues: A damage x healing dichotomy.

The abundance of neutrophils in human circulation, their fast mobilization from blood to tissues, along with their alleged short life-span led to the image of neutrophils as a homogeneous cell type designed to fight infections and die in the process. Additionally, their granule content and capacity to produce molecules with considerable cytotoxic potential, lead to the general belief that neutrophil activation inexorably results in side effect of extensive tissue injury. Neutrophil activation in fact causes tissue injury as an adverse effect, but it seems that this is restricted to particular pathological situations and more of an "exception to the rule". Here we review evidences arising especially from intravital microscopy studies that demonstrate neutrophils as cells endowed with sophisticated mechanisms and able to engage in complex interactions as to minimize damage and optimize their effector functions. Moreover, neutrophil infiltration may even contribute to tissue healing and repair which may altogether demand a reexamination of current anti-inflammatory therapies that have neutrophil migration and activation as a target.

The immunodominant antibody response to Zika virus NS1 protein is characterized by cross-reactivity to self.

Besides antigen-specific responses to viral antigens, humoral immune response in virus infection can generate polyreactive and autoreactive antibodies. Dengue and Zika virus infections have been linked to antibody-mediated autoimmune disorders, including Guillain-Barré syndrome. A unique feature of flaviviruses is the secretion of nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) by infected cells. NS1 is highly immunogenic, and antibodies targeting NS1 can have both protective and pathogenic roles. In the present study, we investigated the humoral immune response to Zika virus NS1 and found NS1 to be an immunodominant viral antigen associated with the presence of autoreactive antibodies. Through single B cell cultures, we coupled binding assays and BCR sequencing, confirming the immunodominance of NS1. We demonstrate the presence of self-reactive clones in germinal centers after both infection and immunization, some of which present cross-reactivity with NS1. Sequence analysis of anti-NS1 B cell clones showed sequence features associated with pathogenic autoreactive antibodies. Our findings demonstrate NS1 immunodominance at the cellular level as well as a potential role for NS1 in ZIKV-associated autoimmune manifestations.

CXCR4 and MIF are required for neutrophil extracellular trap release triggered by Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) evolved as a unique effector mechanism contributing to resistance against infection that can also promote tissue damage in inflammatory conditions. Malaria infection can trigger NET release, but the mechanisms and consequences of NET formation in this context remain poorly characterized. Here we show that patients suffering from severe malaria had increased amounts of circulating DNA and increased neutrophil elastase (NE) levels in plasma. We used cultured erythrocytes and isolated human neutrophils to show that Plasmodium-infected red blood cells release macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which in turn caused NET formation by neutrophils in a mechanism dependent on the C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4). NET production was dependent on histone citrullination by peptidyl arginine deiminase-4 (PAD4) and independent of reactive oxygen species (ROS), myeloperoxidase (MPO) or NE. In vitro, NETs functioned to restrain parasite dissemination in a mechanism dependent on MPO and NE activities. Finally, C57/B6 mice infected with P. berghei ANKA, a well-established model of cerebral malaria, presented high amounts of circulating DNA, while treatment with DNAse increased parasitemia and accelerated mortality, indicating a role for NETs in resistance against Plasmodium infection.

Aerobic glycolysis is a metabolic requirement to maintain the M2-like polarization of tumor-associated macrophages.

Macrophages (MO) are versatile cells, assuming distinct functional phenotypes depending on the activating stimulus and the microenvironment. The differential activation of macrophages is supported by profound intracellular metabolic changes, being well accepted that the M1/M(LPS+IFN-γ) phenotype rely on aerobic glycolysis, while M2/M(IL-4) macrophages depend on oxidative metabolism. On the other hand, although tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are characterized by their high expression of M2/M(IL-4) markers, is currently unclear whether TAMs present the same oxidative metabolic profile of M2/M(IL-4) cells. Herein, we demonstrate for the first time that despite their high expression of M2/M(IL-4) markers, TAMs show high glycolytic activity, with high lactate secretion similar to the M1/M(LPS+ IFN-γ) phenotype. This activity seems to be essential for the M2 profile of TAMs, since the inhibition of glycolysis, but not the impairment of the oxidative phosphorylation or pentose phosphate pathway, diminished the expression of M2/M(IL-4) markers. These novel data indicate that TAMs, although are usually phenotyped as M2/M(IL-4)-like macrophages, they are metabolically distinct from these cells, being rather similar to M1/M(LPS+IFN-γ) macrophages, depending on the glycolytic metabolism to support their profile and functions.

Zika virus replicates in adult human brain tissue and impairs synapses and memory in mice.

Neurological complications affecting the central nervous system have been reported in adult patients infected by Zika virus (ZIKV) but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we report that ZIKV replicates in human and mouse adult brain tissue, targeting mature neurons. ZIKV preferentially targets memory-related brain regions, inhibits hippocampal long-term potentiation and induces memory impairment in adult mice. TNF-α upregulation, microgliosis and upregulation of complement system proteins, C1q and C3, are induced by ZIKV infection. Microglia are found to engulf hippocampal presynaptic terminals during acute infection. Neutralization of TNF-α signaling, blockage of microglial activation or of C1q/C3 prevent synapse and memory impairment in ZIKV-infected mice. Results suggest that ZIKV induces synapse and memory dysfunction via aberrant activation of TNF-α, microglia and complement. Our findings establish a mechanism by which ZIKV affects the adult brain, and point to the need of evaluating cognitive deficits as a potential comorbidity in ZIKV-infected adults.

Toll-Like Receptor 4 and NLRP3 Caspase 1- Interleukin-1ß-Axis are Not Involved in Colon Ascendens Stent Peritonitis-Associated Heart Disease.

Hemodynamic collapse and myocardial dysfunction are among the major causes of death in severe sepsis. The purpose of this study was to assess the role played by toll-like receptor 4 and by the NLRP3 inflammasome in the cardiac dysfunction that occurs after high-grade polymicrobial sepsis. We performed the colon ascendens stent peritonitis (CASP) surgery in Tlr4, Nlrp3, and caspase-1 mice. We also assessed for the first time the electrical heart function in the colon ascendens stent peritonitis (CASP) model. The QJ interval was increased in wild-type C57BL/6J mice after CASP when compared with sham controls, a result paralleled by an increase in the cardiac action potential (AP) duration (APD). The decreases in ejection fraction (EF), left ventricle end diastolic volume, stroke volume, and cardiac output found after CASP were similar among all groups of mice. Similar heart response was found when Nlrp3 mice were submitted to high-grade cecal ligation and puncture. Despite developing cardiac dysfunction similar to wild types after CASP, Nlrp3 mice had reduced circulating levels of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α. Our results demonstrate that the genetic ablation of Tlr4, Nlrp3, and caspase-1 does not prevent the cardiac dysfunction, despite preventing the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines, indicating that these are not feasible targets to therapy in high-grade sepsis.

Critical role of CD4+ T cells and IFNγ signaling in antibody-mediated resistance to Zika virus infection.

Protective adaptive immunity to Zika virus (ZIKV) has been mainly attributed to cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and neutralizing antibodies, while the participation of CD4+ T cells in resistance has remained largely uncharacterized. Here, we show a neutralizing antibody response, dependent on CD4+ T cells and IFNγ signaling, which we detected during the first week of infection and is associated with reduced viral load in the brain, prevention of rapid disease onset and survival. We demonstrate participation of these components in the resistance to ZIKV during primary infection and in murine adoptive transfer models of heterologous ZIKV infection in a background of IFNR deficiency. The protective effect of adoptively transferred CD4+ T cells requires IFNγ signaling, CD8+ T cells and B lymphocytes in recipient mice. Together, this indicates the importance of CD4+ T cell responses in future vaccine design for ZIKV.

Effects of Food Additives on Immune Cells As Contributors to Body Weight Gain and Immune-Mediated Metabolic Dysregulation.

Food additives are compounds used in order to improve food palatability, texture, and shelf life. Despite a significant effort to assure safety of use, toxicological analysis of these substances, generally, rely on their direct toxicity to target organs (liver and kidney) or their genotoxic effects. Much less attention is paid to the effects of these compounds on cells of the immune system. This is of relevance given that metabolic dysregulation and obesity have a strong immune-mediated component. Obese individuals present a state of chronic low-grade inflammation that contributes to the establishment of insulin resistance and other metabolic abnormalities known as the metabolic syndrome. Obesity and metabolic syndrome are currently recognized as worldwide epidemics that pose a profound socioeconomic impact and represent a concern to public health. Cells of the immune system contribute to both the maintenance of "lean homeostasis" and the metabolic dysregulation observed in obese individuals. Although much attention has been drawn in the past decades to obesity and metabolic syndrome as a result of ingesting highly processed food containing large amounts of fat and simple sugars, mounting evidence suggest that food additives may also be important contributors to metabolic derangement. Herein, we review pieces of evidence from the literature showing that food additives have relevant effects on cells of the immune system that could contribute to immune-mediated metabolic dysregulation. Considering their potential to predispose individuals to develop obesity and metabolic syndrome, their use should be taken with caution or maybe revisited.

Zika Virus Infects, Activates, and Crosses Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells, without Barrier Disruption.

Zika virus (ZIKV) has been associated to central nervous system (CNS) harm, and virus was detected in the brain and cerebrospinal fluids of microcephaly and meningoencephalitis cases. However, the mechanism by which the virus reaches the CNS is unclear. Here, we addressed the effects of ZIKV replication in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs), as an in vitro model of blood brain barrier (BBB), and evaluated virus extravasation and BBB integrity in an in vivo mouse experimental model. HBMECs were productively infected by African and Brazilian ZIKV strains (ZIKVMR766 and ZIKVPE243), which induce increased production of type I and type III IFN, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Infection with ZIKVMR766 promoted earlier cellular death, in comparison to ZIKVPE243, but infection with either strain did not result in enhanced endothelial permeability. Despite the maintenance of endothelial integrity, infectious virus particles crossed the monolayer by endocytosis/exocytosis-dependent replication pathway or by transcytosis. Remarkably, both viruses' strains infected IFNAR deficient mice, with high viral load being detected in the brains, without BBB disruption, which was only detected at later time points after infection. These data suggest that ZIKV infects and activates endothelial cells, and might reach the CNS through basolateral release, transcytosis or transinfection processes. These findings further improve the current knowledge regarding ZIKV dissemination pathways.

Protein aggregation as a cellular response to oxidative stress induced by heme and iron.

Hemolytic diseases include a variety of conditions with diverse etiologies in which red blood cells are destroyed and large amounts of hemeproteins are released. Heme has been described as a potent proinflammatory molecule that is able to induce multiple innate immune responses, such as those triggered by TLR4 and the NLRP3 inflammasome, as well as necroptosis in macrophages. The mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells respond to the toxic effects induced by heme to maintain homeostasis are not fully understood, however. Here we describe a previously uncharacterized cellular response induced by heme: the formation of p62/SQTM1 aggregates containing ubiquitinated proteins in structures known as aggresome-like induced structures (ALIS). This action is part of a response driven by the transcription factor NRF2 to the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species induced by heme that results in the expression of genes involved in antioxidant responses, including p62/SQTM1. Furthermore, we show that heme degradation by HO-1 is required for ALIS formation, and that the free iron released on heme degradation is necessary and sufficient to induce ALIS. Moreover, ferritin, a key protein in iron metabolism, prevents excessive ALIS formation. Finally, in vivo, hemolysis promotes an increase in ALIS formation in target tissues. Our data unravel a poorly understood aspect of the cellular responses induced by heme that can be explored to better understand the effects of free heme and free iron during hemolytic diseases such as sickle cell disease, dengue fever, malaria, and sepsis.

Resveratrol Reverses Functional Chagas Heart Disease in Mice.

Chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy (CCC) develops years after acute infection by Trypanosoma cruzi and does not improve after trypanocidal therapy, despite reduction of parasite burden. During disease, the heart undergoes oxidative stress, a potential causative factor for arrhythmias and contractile dysfunction. Here we tested whether antioxidants/ cardioprotective drugs could improve cardiac function in established Chagas heart disease. We chose a model that resembles B1-B2 stage of human CCC, treated mice with resveratrol and performed electrocardiography and echocardiography studies. Resveratrol reduced the prolonged PR and QTc intervals, increased heart rates and reversed sinus arrhythmia, atrial and atrioventricular conduction disorders; restored a normal left ventricular ejection fraction, improved stroke volume and cardiac output. Resveratrol activated the AMPK-pathway and reduced both ROS production and heart parasite burden, without interfering with vascularization or myocarditis intensity. Resveratrol was even capable of improving heart function of infected mice when treatment was started late after infection, while trypanocidal drug benznidazole failed. We attempted to mimic resveratrol's actions using metformin (AMPK-activator) or tempol (SOD-mimetic). Metformin and tempol mimicked the beneficial effects of resveratrol on heart function and decreased lipid peroxidation, but did not alter parasite burden. These results indicate that AMPK activation and ROS neutralization are key strategies to induce tolerance to Chagas heart disease. Despite all tissue damage observed in established Chagas heart disease, we found that a physiological dysfunction can still be reversed by treatment with resveratrol, metformin and tempol, resulting in improved heart function and representing a starting point to develop innovative therapies in CCC.

Exogenous citrate impairs glucose tolerance and promotes visceral adipose tissue inflammation in mice.

Overweight and obesity have become epidemic worldwide and are linked to sedentary lifestyle and the consumption of processed foods and drinks. Citrate is a metabolite that plays central roles in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. In addition, citrate is the additive most commonly used by the food industry, and therefore is highly consumed. Extracellular citrate can freely enter the cells via the constitutively expressed plasma membrane citrate transporter. Within the cytosol, citrate is readily metabolised by ATP-citrate lyase into acetyl-CoA - the metabolic precursor of endogenously produced lipids and cholesterol. We therefore hypothesised that the citrate ingested from processed foods and drinks could contribute to increased postprandial fat production and weight gain. To test our hypothesis, we administered citrate to mice through their drinking water with or without sucrose and monitored their weight gain and other metabolic parameters. Our results showed that mice receiving citrate or citrate+sucrose did not show increased weight gain or an increase in the weight of the liver, skeletal muscles or adipose tissues (AT). Moreover, the plasma lipid profiles (TAG, total cholesterol, LDL and HDL) were similar across all groups. However, the group receiving citrate+sucrose showed augmented fasting glycaemia, glucose intolerance and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6 and IL-10) in their AT. Therefore, our results suggest that citrate consumption contributes to increased AT inflammation and altered glucose metabolism, which is indicative of initial insulin resistance. Thus, citrate consumption could be a previously unknown causative agent for the complications associated with obesity.

ADAM9 disintegrin domain activates human neutrophils through an autocrine circuit involving integrins and CXCR2.

ADAM9 is a member of the ADAM family whose expression positively correlates with tumor progression. Besides the metalloprotease activity, ADAM9D interacts with different integrins, modulating cell-adhesion events. Previous studies pointed to an important role for neutrophils in tumor development, as the inhibition of neutrophil migration or depletion of this immune cell impairs tumor growth. However, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in this process, as well as the main key players acting on neutrophils, is very limited. Here, we investigated the possible modulatory effects of ADAM9D on human neutrophil functions. Our results show that ADAM9D promotes neutrophil activation and chemotaxis in a process that depends on the engagement of αvß3 and α9ß1 integrins and on the activation of PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathway. ADAM9D impairs migration of neutrophils toward fMLP, LTB4, and IL-8 as classic chemoattractants. This effect is blocked by PTX, a G(i)PCR inhibitor. Furthermore, CXCR2 antagonists RPTX and SB225002 also impaired neutrophil chemotaxis in response to ADAM9D, suggesting a hierarchical cross-talk of integrins with CXCR2. Our results indicate that ADAM9D activates neutrophil functions and may be implicated in the inflammatory events associated with cancer and other disorders.

A subclass of acylated anti-inflammatory mediators usurp Toll-like receptor 2 to inhibit neutrophil recruitment through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.

Toll-like receptors are host sentinel receptors that signal the presence of infectious nonself and initiate protective immunity. One of the primary immune defense mechanisms is the recruitment of neutrophils from the bloodstream into the infected tissue. Although neutrophils are important in host defense, they can also be responsible for damaging pathologies associated with excessive inflammation. Here, we report that the di-acylated TLR2 ligand lipoteichoic acid can directly inhibit neutrophil recruitment in vivo. This discovery allowed us to test the concept that conventional proinflammatory TLR2 ligands can be made to act as inhibitors through specific structural modifications. Indeed, lipopeptide TLR2 ligands, when modified at their acyl chains to contain linoleate, lose their capacity to induce inflammation and yield ligands that can directly inhibit the in vivo neutrophil recruitment initiated by a wide range of proinflammatory stimuli. The inhibitory capacity of LTA and these modified ligands requires the expression of TLR2, but is independent of the TLR2 signaling adaptor, MyD88. Instead, this inhibitory effect requires functional activity of the fatty acid and nuclear hormone receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Therefore, these data support a model in TLR2 biology where structural modifications of these ligands can profoundly influence host-microbial interactions. These inhibitory TLR2 ligands also have broader implications with respect to their potential use in various inflammatory disease settings.

Inhibition of guanylyl cyclase restores neutrophil migration and maintains bactericidal activity increasing survival in sepsis.

Sepsis results from an overwhelming response to infection and is a major contributor to death in intensive care units worldwide. In recent years, we and others have shown that neutrophil functionality is impaired in sepsis. This correlates with sepsis severity and contributes to aggravation of sepsis by precluding bacterial clearance. Nitric oxide (NO) is a major contributor to the impairment of neutrophil function in sepsis. However, attempts to inhibit NO synthesis in sepsis resulted in increased death despite restoring neutrophil migration. This could be in part attributed to a reduction of the NO-dependent microbicidal activity of neutrophils. In sepsis, the beneficial effects resulting from the inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), a downstream target of NO, have long been appreciated but poorly understood. However, the effects of sGC inhibition on neutrophil function in sepsis have never been addressed. In the present study, we show that TLR activation in human neutrophils leads to decreased chemotaxis, which correlated with chemotactic receptor internalization and increased G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 expression, in a process involving the NO-sGC-protein kinase G axis. We also demonstrate that inhibition of sGC activity increased survival in a murine model of sepsis, which was paralleled by restored neutrophil migratory function and increased bacterial clearance. Finally, the beneficial effect of sGC inhibition could also be demonstrated in mice treated after the onset of sepsis. Our results suggest that the beneficial effects of sGC inhibition in sepsis could be at least in part attributed to a recovery of neutrophil functionality.

Impaired neutrophil chemotaxis in sepsis associates with GRK expression and inhibition of actin assembly and tyrosine phosphorylation.

The deregulation of inflammatory response during sepsis seems to reflect the overproduction of mediators, which suppress leukocyte functions. We investigated the intracellular mechanisms underlying the inability of neutrophils from severe septic patients to migrate toward chemoattractants. Patients with sepsis (52) and 15 volunteers were prospectively enrolled. Patients presented increased circulating levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-8, and IL-10. Patients showed reduced neutrophil chemotaxis to formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (FMLP), leukotriene B4 (LTB4) or IL-8. No difference in the transcription or expression of the IL-8 receptor, CXCR1, was detected in neutrophils from controls and patients. However, septic neutrophils failed to increase tyrosine phosphorylation and actin polymerization in response to IL-8 or LTB4. In contrast, septic neutrophils, similar to controls, showed phagocytic activity that induced actin polymerization and augmented phosphotyrosine content. Treatment of control neutrophils with cytokines and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to mimic endogenous septic environment inhibited actin polymerization and tyrosine phosphorylation in response to IL-8 or LTB4. High expression of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) and GRK5 was detected in septic neutrophils and control cells treated with cytokines plus LPS. Data suggest that endogenous mediators produced during sepsis might continually activate circulating neutrophils, leading to GRK activation, which may induce neutrophil desensitization to chemoattractants.

Prostaglandin E2 and dexamethasone regulate eosinophil differentiation and survival through a nitric oxide- and CD95-dependent pathway.

Apoptosis, involving both CD95/CD95L interactions and their modulation by nitric oxide (NO), is central to regulation of mature eosinophil numbers. However, its role in regulating eosinophil production from bone-marrow precursors is unknown. We examined the effects of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and dexamethasone on eosinophil differentiation and survival in murine bone-marrow cultures, and their relationship to: NO production as well as CD95/CD95L-dependent apoptosis. Bone-marrow cultures were established with IL-5, alone or in association with PGE2, dexamethasone or both. PGE2 (10(-7)M) inhibited eosinophil differentiation by selectively inducing apoptosis in developing eosinophils. Dexamethasone (10(-7)M) protected developing eosinophils from PGE2-induced apoptosis. Since dexamethasone prevents induction of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), we evaluated the role of NO in the effects of both PGE2 and dexamethasone. NO donors (SNAP and SNP) down-modulated eosinophil precursor responses to IL-5. SNAP induced apoptosis through a dexamethasone-resistant mechanism. The NOS inhibitors, Nomega-nitro-L-arginine and aminoguanidine, blocked the effects of PGE2 on developing eosinophils. PGE2 was ineffective in bone-marrow from knockout mice lacking inducible NOS. PGE2 up-regulated CD95 and CD95L expression in developing eosinophils. Neither PGE2 nor SNAP were effective in cultures from CD95L-deficient gld mice. These data suggest that PGE2 induces apoptosis in developing eosinophils through inducible NOS, leading to NO-dependent activation of the CD95L/CD95 pathway, while dexamethasone antagonizes the effects of PGE2 on the same targets.