Histaminylation of glutamine residues is a novel posttranslational modification implicated in G-protein signaling.

Posttranslational modifications (PTM) have been shown to be essential for protein function and signaling. Here we report the identification of a novel modification, protein transfer of histamine, and provide evidence for its function in G protein signaling. Histamine, known as neurotransmitter and mediator of the inflammatory response, was found incorporated into mastocytoma proteins. Histaminylation was dependent on transglutaminase II. Mass spectrometry confirmed histamine modification of the small and heterotrimeric G proteins Cdc42, Gαo1 and Gαq. The modification was specific for glutamine residues in the catalytic core, and triggered their constitutive activation. TGM2-mediated histaminylation is thus a novel PTM that functions in G protein signaling. Protein αmonoaminylations, thus including histaminylation, serotonylation, dopaminylation and norepinephrinylation, hence emerge as a novel class of regulatory PTMs.

Alternative splicing and extensive RNA editing of human TPH2 transcripts.

Brain serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission plays a key role in the regulation of mood and has been implicated in a variety of neuropsychiatric conditions. Tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of 5-HT. Recently, we discovered a second TPH isoform (TPH2) in vertebrates, including man, which is predominantly expressed in brain, while the previously known TPH isoform (TPH1) is primarly a non-neuronal enzyme. Overwhelming evidence now points to TPH2 as a candidate gene for 5-HT-related psychiatric disorders. To assess the role of TPH2 gene variability in the etiology of psychiatric diseases we performed cDNA sequence analysis of TPH2 transcripts from human post mortem amygdala samples obtained from individuals with psychiatric disorders (drug abuse, schizophrenia, suicide) and controls. Here we show that TPH2 exists in two alternatively spliced variants in the coding region, denoted TPH2a and TPH2b. Moreover, we found evidence that the pre-mRNAs of both splice variants are dynamically RNA-edited in a mutually exclusive manner. Kinetic studies with cell lines expressing recombinant TPH2 variants revealed a higher activity of the novel TPH2B protein compared with the previously known TPH2A, whereas RNA editing was shown to inhibit the enzymatic activity of both TPH2 splice variants. Therefore, our results strongly suggest a complex fine-tuning of central nervous system 5-HT biosynthesis by TPH2 alternative splicing and RNA editing. Finally, we present molecular and large-scale linkage data evidencing that deregulated alternative splicing and RNA editing is involved in the etiology of psychiatric diseases, such as suicidal behaviour.

Intracellular serotonin modulates insulin secretion from pancreatic beta-cells by protein serotonylation.

While serotonin (5-HT) co-localization with insulin in granules of pancreatic beta-cells was demonstrated more than three decades ago, its physiological role in the etiology of diabetes is still unclear. We combined biochemical and electrophysiological analyses of mice selectively deficient in peripheral tryptophan hydroxylase (Tph1-/-) and 5-HT to show that intracellular 5-HT regulates insulin secretion. We found that these mice are diabetic and have an impaired insulin secretion due to the lack of 5-HT in the pancreas. The pharmacological restoration of peripheral 5-HT levels rescued the impaired insulin secretion in vivo. These findings were further evidenced by patch clamp experiments with isolated Tph1-/- beta-cells, which clearly showed that the secretory defect is downstream of Ca(2+)-signaling and can be rescued by direct intracellular application of 5-HT via the clamp pipette. In elucidating the underlying mechanism further, we demonstrate the covalent coupling of 5-HT by transglutaminases during insulin exocytosis to two key players in insulin secretion, the small GTPases Rab3a and Rab27a. This renders them constitutively active in a receptor-independent signaling mechanism we have recently termed serotonylation. Concordantly, an inhibition of such activating serotonylation in beta-cells abates insulin secretion. We also observed inactivation of serotonylated Rab3a by enhanced proteasomal degradation, which is in line with the inactivation of other serotonylated GTPases. Our results demonstrate that 5-HT regulates insulin secretion by serotonylation of GTPases within pancreatic beta-cells and suggest that intracellular 5-HT functions in various microenvironments via this mechanism in concert with the known receptor-mediated signaling.

A mammalianized synthetic nitroreductase gene for high-level expression.

BACKGROUND: The nitroreductase/5-(azaridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitrobenzamide (NTR/CB1954) enzyme/prodrug system is considered as a promising candidate for anti-cancer strategies by gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) and has recently entered clinical trials. It requires the genetic modification of tumor cells to express the E. coli enzyme nitroreductase that bioactivates the prodrug CB1954 to a powerful cytotoxin. This metabolite causes apoptotic cell death by DNA interstrand crosslinking. Enhancing the enzymatic NTR activity for CB1954 should improve the therapeutical potential of this enzyme-prodrug combination in cancer gene therapy. METHODS: We performed de novo synthesis of the bacterial nitroreductase gene adapting codon usage to mammalian preferences. The synthetic gene was investigated for its expression efficacy and ability to sensitize mammalian cells to CB1954 using western blotting analysis and cytotoxicity assays. RESULTS: In our study, we detected cytoplasmic protein aggregates by expressing GFP-tagged NTR in COS-7 cells, suggesting an impaired translation by divergent codon usage between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Therefore, we generated a synthetic variant of the nitroreductase gene, called ntro, adapted for high-level expression in mammalian cells. A total of 144 silent base substitutions were made within the bacterial ntr gene to change its codon usage to mammalian preferences. The codon-optimized ntro either tagged to gfp or c-myc showed higher expression levels in mammalian cell lines. Furthermore, the ntro rendered several cell lines ten times more sensitive to the prodrug CB1954 and also resulted in an improved bystander effect. CONCLUSION: Our results show that codon optimization overcomes expression limitations of the bacterial ntr gene in mammalian cells, thereby improving the NTR/CB1954 system at translational level for cancer gene therapy in humans.

Serotonylation of small GTPases is a signal transduction pathway that triggers platelet alpha-granule release.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. In the periphery, serotonin functions as a ubiquitous hormone involved in vasoconstriction and platelet function. Serotonin is synthesized independently in peripheral tissues and neurons by two different rate-limiting tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) isoenzymes. Here, we show that mice selectively deficient in peripheral TPH and serotonin exhibit impaired hemostasis, resulting in a reduced risk of thrombosis and thromboembolism, although the ultrastructure of the platelets is not affected. While the aggregation of serotonin-deficient platelets in vitro is apparently normal, their adhesion in vivo is reduced due to a blunted secretion of adhesive alpha-granular proteins. In elucidating the mechanism further, we demonstrate that serotonin is transamidated to small GTPases by transglutaminases during activation and aggregation of platelets, rendering these GTPases constitutively active. Our data provides evidence for a receptor-independent signaling mechanism, termed herein as "serotonylation," which leads to alpha-granule exocytosis from platelets.