Substrate specificity and promiscuity of horizontally transferred UDP-glycosyltransferases in the generalist herbivore Tetranychus urticae.

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) catalyze the addition of UDP-sugars to small hydrophobic molecules, turning them into more water-soluble metabolites. While their role in detoxification is well documented for vertebrates, arthropod UGTs have only recently been linked to the detoxification and sequestration of plant toxins and insecticides. The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae is a generalist herbivore notorious for rapidly developing resistance to insecticides and acaricides. We identified a set of eight UGT genes that were overexpressed in mites upon long-term acclimation or adaptation to a new host plant and/or in mite strains highly resistant to acaricides. Functional expression revealed that they were all catalytically active and that the majority preferred UDP-glucose as activated donor for glycosylation of model substrates. A high-throughput substrate screening of both plant secondary metabolites and pesticides revealed patterns of both substrate specificity and promiscuity. We further selected nine enzyme-substrate combinations for more comprehensive analysis and determined steady-state kinetic parameters. Among others, plant metabolites such as capsaicin and several flavonoids were shown to be glycosylated. The acaricide abamectin was also glycosylated by two UGTs and one of these was also overexpressed in an abamectin resistant strain. Our study corroborates the potential role of T. urticae UGTs in detoxification of both synthetic and natural xenobiotic compounds and paves the way for rapid substrate screening of arthropod UGTs.

Multiple recombination events between two cytochrome P450 loci contribute to global pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera.

The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) is one of the most serious insect pest species to evolve resistance against many insecticides from different chemical classes. This species has evolved resistance to the pyrethroid insecticides across its native range and is becoming a truly global pest after establishing in South America and having been recently recorded in North America. A chimeric cytochrome P450 gene, CYP337B3, has been identified as a resistance mechanism for resistance to fenvalerate and cypermethrin. Here we show that this resistance mechanism is common around the world with at least eight different alleles. It is present in South America and has probably introgressed into its closely related native sibling species, Helicoverpa zea. The different alleles of CYP337B3 are likely to have arisen independently in different geographic locations from selection on existing diversity. The alleles found in Brazil are those most commonly found in Asia, suggesting a potential origin for the incursion of H. armigera into the Americas.

The role of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) in insecticide resistance in crop pests and disease vectors.

Insecticide resistance seriously threatens efficient arthropod pest management. Arthropod glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) confer resistance via direct metabolism or sequestration of chemicals, but also indirectly by providing protection against oxidative stress induced by insecticide exposure. To date, GST activity has been associated with resistance to all main classes of insecticides. However, recent advances in genome and transcriptome sequencing, together with modern genetic, functional and biochemical techniques, facilitate the unraveling of specific GST-mediated resistance mechanisms. Recently, the role of a number of GSTs (BdGSTe2, BdGSTe4, AfGSTe2) has been validated by (reverse) genetic methods in vivo, while a number of GSTs (BmGSTu2, TuGSTd05, AfGSTe2) have now been shown to metabolize insecticides in vitro.

Molecular characterization of pyrethroid resistance in the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae.

Α reduction of pyrethroid efficacy has been recently recorded in Bactrocera oleae, the most destructive insect of olives. The resistance levels of field populations collected from Crete-Greece scaled up to 22-folds, compared to reference laboratory strains. Sequence analysis of the IIS4-IIS6 region of para sodium channel gene in a large number of resistant flies indicated that resistance may not be associated with target site mutations, in line with previous studies in other Tephritidae species. We analyzed the transcriptomic differences between two resistant populations versus an almost susceptible field population and two laboratory strains. A large number of genes was found to be significantly differentially transcribed across the pairwise comparisons. Interestingly, gene set analysis revealed that genes of the 'electron carrier activity' GO group were enriched in one specific comparison, which might suggest a P450-mediated resistance mechanism. The up-regulation of several transcripts encoding detoxification enzymes was qPCR validated, focusing on transcripts coding for P450s. Of note, the expression of contig00436 and contig02103, encoding CYP6 P450s, was significantly higher in all resistant populations, compared to susceptible ones. These results suggest that an increase in the amount of the CYP6 P450s might be an important mechanism of pyrethroid resistance in B. oleae.

A Gene Family Coding for Salivary Proteins (SHOT) of the Polyphagous Spider Mite Tetranychus urticae Exhibits Fast Host-Dependent Transcriptional Plasticity.

The salivary protein repertoire released by the herbivorous pest Tetranychus urticae is assumed to hold keys to its success on diverse crops. We report on a spider mite-specific protein family that is expanded in T. urticae. The encoding genes have an expression pattern restricted to the anterior podocephalic glands, while peptide fragments were found in the T. urticae secretome, supporting the salivary nature of these proteins. As peptide fragments were identified in a host-dependent manner, we designated this family as the SHOT (secreted host-responsive protein of Tetranychidae) family. The proteins were divided in three groups based on sequence similarity. Unlike TuSHOT3 genes, TuSHOT1 and TuSHOT2 genes were highly expressed when feeding on a subset of family Fabaceae, while expression was depleted on other hosts. TuSHOT1 and TuSHOT2 expression was induced within 24 h after certain host transfers, pointing toward transcriptional plasticity rather than selection as the cause. Transfer from an 'inducer' to a 'noninducer' plant was associated with slow yet strong downregulation of TuSHOT1 and TuSHOT2, occurring over generations rather than hours. This asymmetric on and off regulation points toward host-specific effects of SHOT proteins, which is further supported by the diversity of SHOT genes identified in Tetranychidae with a distinct host repertoire.

Transcriptomic responses of the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae and its symbiont Candidatus Erwinia dacicola to olive feeding.

The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae, is the most destructive pest of olive orchards worldwide. The monophagous larva has the unique capability of feeding on olive mesocarp, coping with high levels of phenolic compounds and utilizing non-hydrolyzed proteins present, particularly in the unripe, green olives. On the molecular level, the interaction between B. oleae and olives has not been investigated as yet. Nevertheless, it has been associated with the gut obligate symbiotic bacterium Candidatus Erwinia dacicola. Here, we used a B.oleae microarray to analyze the gene expression of larvae during their development in artificial diet, unripe (green) and ripe (black) olives. The expression profiles of Ca. E. dacicola were analyzed in parallel, using the Illumina platform. Several genes were found overexpressed in the olive fly larvae when feeding in green olives. Among these, a number of genes encoding detoxification and digestive enzymes, indicating a potential association with the ability of B. oleae to cope with green olives. In addition, a number of biological processes seem to be activated in Ca. E. dacicola during the development of larvae in olives, with the most notable being the activation of amino-acid metabolism.

A glutathione-S-transferase (TuGSTd05) associated with acaricide resistance in Tetranychus urticae directly metabolizes the complex II inhibitor cyflumetofen.

Cyflumetofen is a recently introduced acaricide with a novel mode of action, acting as an inhibitor of complex II of mitochondrial electron transport chain. It is activated by hydrolysis and the resulting de-esterified metabolite is a much stronger inhibitor. Cyflumetofen represents a great addition for the control of mite species including Tetranychus urticae, a major agricultural pest, which has the ability to develop resistance to most classes of pesticides rapidly. A resistant strain (Tu008R) was recently described and synergism experiments pointed towards the involvement of GSTs. Here, we conducted genome-wide gene expression analysis, comparing Tu008R with its parental susceptible strain, and identified the delta GST TuGSTd05 as the prime resistance-conferring candidate. Docking analysis suggests that both cyflumetofen and its de-esterified metabolite are potential substrates for conjugation by TuGSTd05. Several amino acids were identified that might be involved in the interaction, with Y107 and N103 possibly having an important role. To further investigate interaction as well as the role of Y107 and N103 in vitro, we recombinantly expressed and kinetically characterized the wild type TuGSTd05, TuGSTd05 Y107F and TuGSTd05 N103L mutants. While cyflumetofen was not found to act as a strong inhibitor, the de-esterified metabolite showed strong affinity for TuGSTd05 (IC50 = 4 µM), which could serve as a mechanism of rapid detoxification. Y107 and N103 might contribute to this interaction. HPLC-MS analysis provided solid indications that TuGSTd05 catalyzes the conjugation of ionized glutathione (GS-) to cyflumetofen and/or its de-esterified metabolite and the resulting metabolite and possible site of attack were identified.

Only a minority of broad-range detoxification genes respond to a variety of phytotoxins in generalist Bemisia tabaci species.

Generalist insect can utilize two different modes for regulating their detoxification genes, the constitutive mode and the induced mode. Here, we used the Bemisia tabaci sibling species MEAM1 and MED, as a model system for studying constitutive and induced detoxification resistance and their associated tradeoffs. B. tabaci adults were allowed to feed through membranes for 24 h on diet containing only sucrose or sucrose with various phytotoxins. Quantitative real-time PCR analyses of 18 detoxification genes, indicated that relatively few transcripts were changed in both the MEAM1 and MED species, in response to the addition of phytotoxins to the diet. Induced transcription of detoxification genes only in the MED species, in response to the presence of indole-3-carbinol in the insect's diet, was correlated with maintenance of reproductive performance in comparison to significant reduction in performance of the MEAM1 species. Three genes, COE2, CYP6-like 5 and BtGST2, responded to more than one compound and were highly transcribed in the insect gut. Furthermore, functional assays showed that the BtGST2 gene encodes a protein capable of interacting with both flavonoids and glucosinolates. In conclusion, several detoxification genes were identified that could potentially be involved in the adaptation of B. tabaci to its host plants.

Functional characterization of glutathione S-transferases associated with insecticide resistance in Tetranychus urticae.

The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae is one of the most important agricultural pests world-wide. It is extremely polyphagous and develops resistance to acaricides. The overexpression of several glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) has been associated with insecticide resistance. Here, we functionally expressed and characterized three GSTs, two of the delta class (TuGSTd10, TuGSTd14) and one of the mu class (TuGSTm09), which had been previously associated with striking resistance phenotypes against abamectin and other acaricides/insecticides, by transcriptional studies. Functional analysis showed that all three GSTs were capable of catalyzing the conjugation of both 1-chloro-2,4 dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene(DCNB) to glutathione (GSH), as well as exhibiting GSH-dependent peroxidase activity toward Cumene hydroperoxide (CumOOH). The steady-state kinetics of the T. urticae GSTs for the GSH/CDNB conjugation reaction were determined and compared with other GSTs. The interaction of the three recombinant proteins with several acaricides and insecticides was also investigated. TuGSTd14 showed the highest affinity toward abamectin and a competitive type of inhibition, which suggests that the insecticide may bind to the H-site of the enzyme. The three-dimensional structure of the TuGSTd14 was predicted based on X-ray structures of delta class GSTs using molecular modeling. Structural analysis was used to identify key structural characteristics and to provide insights into the substrate specificity and the catalytic mechanism of TuGSTd14.

Analysis of the Olive Fruit Fly Bactrocera oleae Transcriptome and Phylogenetic Classification of the Major Detoxification Gene Families.

The olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae has a unique ability to cope with olive flesh, and is the most destructive pest of olives worldwide. Its control has been largely based on the use of chemical insecticides, however, the selection of insecticide resistance against several insecticides has evolved. The study of detoxification mechanisms, which allow the olive fruit fly to defend against insecticides, and/or phytotoxins possibly present in the mesocarp, has been hampered by the lack of genomic information in this species. In the NCBI database less than 1,000 nucleotide sequences have been deposited, with less than 10 detoxification gene homologues in total. We used 454 pyrosequencing to produce, for the first time, a large transcriptome dataset for B. oleae. A total of 482,790 reads were assembled into 14,204 contigs. More than 60% of those contigs (8,630) were larger than 500 base pairs, and almost half of them matched with genes of the order of the Diptera. Analysis of the Gene Ontology (GO) distribution of unique contigs, suggests that, compared to other insects, the assembly is broadly representative for the B. oleae transcriptome. Furthermore, the transcriptome was found to contain 55 P450, 43 GST-, 15 CCE- and 18 ABC transporter-genes. Several of those detoxification genes, may putatively be involved in the ability of the olive fruit fly to deal with xenobiotics, such as plant phytotoxins and insecticides. In summary, our study has generated new data and genomic resources, which will substantially facilitate molecular studies in B. oleae, including elucidation of detoxification mechanisms of xenobiotic, as well as other important aspects of olive fruit fly biology.

A new dibenzoylhydrazine with insecticidal activity against Anopheles mosquito larvae.

BACKGROUND: Dibenzoylhydrazine (DBH) compounds have been applied successfully as environmentally safe insecticides against lepidopteran larvae and ground-dwelling coleopterans, but their potential to combat mosquito larvae is largely unknown. Here, toxicity tests of three commercial DBHs (tebufenozide, methoxyfenozide and halofenozide) and one experimental DBH (KU-106) against larvae of Anopheles gambiae, the major vector for human malaria, are reported. RESULTS: Based on calculated median larvicidal concentration (LC50 ) values at 5 days of treatment, KU-106 (760 nM) showed an activity against Anopheles larvae similar to that of commercial halofenozide. Induction of the early-late gene hr3 and docking studies of DBHs in the ligand-binding pocket of the modelled Anopheles ecdysone receptor indicated that toxicity is caused by the activation of the ecdysone regulatory cascade causing a premature lethal moult. CONCLUSIONS: As a result of the similar toxicity exhibited by the experimental compound KU-106 to that shown by commercial products, the present study demonstrated that the use of DBH compounds to combat harmful dipteran insects, such as mosquitoes, remains unexplored and invites further systematic toxicity tests using other derivatives of the DBH class of compounds.

Use of mutagenesis, genetic mapping and next generation transcriptomics to investigate insecticide resistance mechanisms.

Insecticide resistance is a worldwide problem with major impact on agriculture and human health. Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms is crucial for the management of the phenomenon; however, this information often comes late with respect to the implementation of efficient counter-measures, particularly in the case of metabolism-based resistance mechanisms. We employed a genome-wide insertional mutagenesis screen to Drosophila melanogaster, using a Minos-based construct, and retrieved a line (MiT[w(-)]3R2) resistant to the neonicotinoid insecticide Imidacloprid. Biochemical and bioassay data indicated that resistance was due to increased P450 detoxification. Deep sequencing transcriptomic analysis revealed substantial over- and under-representation of 357 transcripts in the resistant line, including statistically significant changes in mixed function oxidases, peptidases and cuticular proteins. Three P450 genes (Cyp4p2, Cyp6a2 and Cyp6g1) located on the 2R chromosome, are highly up-regulated in mutant flies compared to susceptible Drosophila. One of them (Cyp6g1) has been already described as a major factor for Imidacloprid resistance, which validated the approach. Elevated expression of the Cyp4p2 was not previously documented in Drosophila lines resistant to neonicotinoids. In silico analysis using the Drosophila reference genome failed to detect transcription binding factors or microRNAs associated with the over-expressed Cyp genes. The resistant line did not contain a Minos insertion in its chromosomes, suggesting a hit-and-run event, i.e. an insertion of the transposable element, followed by an excision which caused the mutation. Genetic mapping placed the resistance locus to the right arm of the second chromosome, within a ∼1 Mb region, where the highly up-regulated Cyp6g1 gene is located. The nature of the unknown mutation that causes resistance is discussed on the basis of these results.