Induction of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Apoptosis by Aminosteroid RM-581 Efficiently Blocks the Growth of PC-3 Cancer Cells and Tumors Resistant or Not to Docetaxel.

Aminosteroid derivative RM-581 was previously identified as an endoplasmic-reticulum (ER) stress inducer with potent in vitro and in vivo anticancer activities. We report its evaluation in androgen-independent prostate cancer (PC-3) cells. RM-581 efficiently blocks PC-3 cell proliferation with stronger activity than that of a selection of known antineoplastic agents. This later also showed a synergistic effect with docetaxel, able to block the proliferation of docetaxel-resistant PC-3 cells and, contrary to docetaxel, did not induce cell resistance. RM-581 induced an increase in the expression level of ER stress-related markers of apoptosis, potentially triggered by the presence of RM-581 in the ER of PC-3 cells. These in vitro results were then successfully translated in vivo in a PC-3 xenograft tumor model in nude mice, showing superior blockade than that of docetaxel. RM-581 was also able to stop the progression of PC-3 cells when they had become resistant to docetaxel treatment. Concomitantly, we observed a decrease in gene markers of mevalonate and fatty acid pathways, and intratumoral levels of cholesterol by 19% and fatty acids by 22%. Overall, this work demonstrates the potential of an ER stress inducer as an anticancer agent for the treatment of prostate cancers that are refractory to commonly used chemotherapy treatments.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel 1,4-benzodiazepin-3-one derivatives as potential antitumor agents against prostate cancer.

A novel tumor suppressing agent was discovered against PC-3 prostate cancer cells from the screening of a 1,4-benzodiazepin-3-one library. In this study, 96 highly diversified 2,4,5-trisubstituted 1,4-benzodiazepin-3-one derivatives were prepared by a two-step approach using sequential Ugi multicomponent reaction and simultaneous deprotection and cyclization to afford pure compounds bearing a wide variety of substituents. The most promising compound showed a potent and selective antiproliferative activity against prostate cancer cell line PC-3 (GI50 = 10.2 µM), but had no effect on LNCAP, LAPC4 and DU145 cell lines. The compound was initially prepared as a mixture of two diastereomers and after their separation by HPLC, similar antiproliferative activities against PC-3 cells were observed for both diastereomers (2S,5S: GI50 = 10.8 µM and 2S,5R: GI50 = 7.0 µM). Additionally, both diastereomers showed comparable stability profiles after incubation with human liver microsomes. Finally, in vivo evaluation of the hit compound with the chick chorioallantoic membrane xenograft assay revealed a good toxicity profile and significant antitumor activity after intravenous injection.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid: A Pharmaco-Nutraceutical Approach to Improve the Responsiveness to Ursodeoxycholic Acid.

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is the first line therapy for the treatment of cholestatic and autoimmune liver diseases. Its clinical use is currently limited by a significant proportion of non-responder patients. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) possess important anti-inflammatory properties and protect liver cells against bile acid (BA)-induced toxicity. The present study was designed to rapidly evaluate whether combining n-3 PUFAs (i.e., eicosapentaenoic [EPA] and docosahexaenoic [DHA] acids) to UDCA would provide additional benefits when compared to the drug alone. The parameters evaluated were (i) the expression of genes governing BA synthesis, transport, and metabolism; (ii) the prevention of BA-induced apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress; and (iii) the control of BA- and LPS-dependent inflammation. In the absence of n-3 PUFAs, most of the parameters investigated were unaffected by UDCA or were only altered by the higher dose (500 µM) of the drug. By contrast, in the presence of EPA/DHA (50/50 µM), all parameters showed a strongly improved response and the lowest UDCA dosage (50 µM) provided equal or better benefits than the highest dose used alone. For example, the combination EPA/DHA + UDCA 50 µM caused comparable down-regulation of the CYP7A1 gene expression and of the BA-induced caspase 3 activity as observed with UDCA 500 µM. In conclusion, these results suggest that the addition of n-3 PUFAs to UDCA may improve the response to the drug, and that such a pharmaco-nutraceutical approach could be used in clinic to open the narrow therapeutic dose of UDCA in cholestatic liver diseases.

16-Picolyl-androsterone derivative exhibits potent 17ß-HSD3 inhibitory activity, improved metabolic stability and cytotoxic effect on various cancer cells: Synthesis, homology modeling and docking studies.

A new androsterone derivative bearing a 16ß-picolyl group (compound 5; FCO-586-119) was synthetized in four steps from the lead compound 1 (RM-532-105). We measured its inhibitory activity on 17ß-HSD3 using microsomal fraction of rat testes as well as transfected LNCaP[17ß-HSD3] cells. We then assessed its metabolic stability as well as its cytotoxic effect against a panel of cancer cell lines. The addition of a picolyl moiety at C-16 of RM-532-105 steroid core improves the 17ß-HSD3 inhibitory activity in the microsomal fraction of rat testes, but not in whole LNCaP[17ß-HSD3] cells. Interestingly, this structural modification enhances 3-fold the metabolic stability in conjunction with a significant cytotoxic effect against pancreatic, ovarian, breast, lung, and prostate cancer cells. Because the inhibitory activity data against 17ß-HSD3 suggested that both steroid derivatives are non-competitive inhibitors, we performed docking and molecular dynamics simulations using a homology model of this membrane-associated enzyme. The results of these simulations revealed that both RM-532-105 (1) and FCO-586-119 (5) can compete for the cofactor-binding site displaying better binding energy than NADP+.

Minor chemical modifications of the aminosteroid derivative RM-581 lead to major impact on its anticancer activity, metabolic stability and aqueous solubility.

The aminosteroid (AM) RM-581 is built around a mestranol backbone and has recently emerged as this family's lead candidate, showing in vitro and in vivo potency over different types of cancer, including high fatality pancreatic cancer. To extend the structure-activity relationships (SAR) to other estrane analogs, we synthesized a focused series of RM-581 derivatives at position C3 or C2 of its steroidal core. These new AM derivatives were first tested on a large selection of prostate, breast, pancreatic and ovarian cancer cell lines. The impact of these modifications on metabolic stability (human liver microsomes) was also measured. A SAR study revealed a fine regulation of anticancer activity related to the nature of the substituent. Indeed, the addition of potential prodrug groups like acetate, sulfamate or phosphate (compounds 8, 9 and 10) at C3 of the phenolic counterpart provided better antiproliferative activities than RM-581 in breast and pancreatic cancer cell types while maintaining activity in other cancer cell lines. Also, the phosphate group was highly beneficial on water solubility. However, the bulkier carbamate prodrugs 6 (N,N-dimethyl) and 7 (N,N-diethyl) were less active. Otherwise, carbon homologation (CH2) at C2 (compound 33) was beneficial to metabolic stability and, in the meantime, this AM conserved the same anticancer activity as RM-581. However, the replacement of the hydroxy or methoxy at C3 by a hydrogen or an acetyl (compound 17 or 21b) was detrimental for anticancer activity, pointing to a crucial molecular interaction of the aromatic oxygen atom at this position. Overall, this work provided a better knowledge of the structural requirements to maintain RM-581's anticancer activity, and also identified minor structural modifications to increase both metabolic stability and water solubility, three important parameters of pharmacological development.

A- and D-Ring Structural Modifications of an Androsterone Derivative Inhibiting 17ß-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 3: Chemical Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships.

Decreasing the intratumoral androgen biosynthesis by using an inhibitor of 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 (17ß-HSD3) is a strategy to treat prostate cancer. The androsterone (ADT) derivative 1 (RM-532-105) has shown strong inhibitory activity on 17ß-HSD3, but needs to be improved. Herein, we describe the chemical synthesis and characterization of two series of analogues to address the impact of A- and D-ring modifications on 17ß-HSD3 inhibitory activity, androgenic effect, and metabolic stability. Structure-activity relationships were generated by adding different groups at C16/C17 (D-ring diversification) or replacing the ADT backbone by a nor-androstane or an estrane backbone (A-ring diversification). D-ring derivatives were less potent inhibitors than lead compound 1, whereas steroidal backbone (A-ring) change led to identifying promising novel estrane derivatives. This culminated with potent 17ß-HSD3 inhibitors 23, 27, 31, and 33 (IC50 = 0.10, 0.02, 0.13, and 0.17 µM, respectively), which did not stimulate LAPC-4 cell proliferation and displayed higher plasma concentration in mice than lead compound 1.

Induction of endoplasmic reticulum stress by aminosteroid derivative RM-581 leads to tumor regression in PANC-1 xenograft model.

The high fatality and morbidity of pancreatic cancer have remained almost unchanged over the last decades and new clinical therapeutic tools are urgently needed. We determined the cytotoxic activity of aminosteroid derivatives RM-133 (androstane) and RM-581 (estrane) in three human pancreatic cancer cell lines (BxPC3, Hs766T and PANC-1). In PANC-1, a similar level of antiproliferative activity was observed for RM-581 and RM-133 (IC50 = 3.9 and 4.3 µM, respectively), but RM-581 provided a higher selectivity index (SI = 12.8) for cancer cells over normal pancreatic cells than RM-133 (SI = 2.8). We also confirmed that RM-581 induces the same ER stress-apoptosis markers (BIP, CHOP and HERP) than RM-133 in PANC-1 cells, pointing out to a similar mechanism of action. Finally, these relevant in vitro results have been successfully translated in vivo by testing RM-581 using different doses (10-60 mg/kg/day) and modes of administration in PANC-1 xenograft models, which have led to tumor regression without any sign of toxicity in mice (animal weight, behavior and histology). Interestingly, RM-581 fully reduced the pancreatic tumor growth when administered orally in mice.

Urinary Elimination of Bile Acid Glucuronides under Severe Cholestatic Situations: Contribution of Hepatic and Renal Glucuronidation Reactions.

Biliary obstruction, a severe cholestatic complication, causes accumulation of toxic bile acids (BAs) in liver cells. Glucuronidation, catalyzed by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes, detoxifies cholestatic BAs. Using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, 11 BA glucuronide (-G) species were quantified in prebiliary and postbiliary stenting serum and urine samples from 17 patients with biliary obstruction. Stenting caused glucuronide- and fluid-specific changes in BA-G levels and BA-G/BA metabolic ratios. In vitro glucuronidation assays with human liver and kidney microsomes revealed that even if renal enzymes generally displayed lower KM values, the two tissues shared similar glucuronidation capacities for BAs. By contrast, major differences between the two tissues were observed when four human BA-conjugating UGTs 1A3, 1A4, 2B4, and 2B7 were analyzed for mRNA and protein levels. Notably, the BA-24G producing UGT1A3 enzyme, abundant in the liver, was not detected in kidney microsomes. In conclusion, the circulating and urinary BA-G profiles are hugely impacted under severe cholestasis. The similar BA-glucuronidating abilities of hepatic and renal extracts suggest that both the liver and kidney may contribute to the urine BA-G pool.

Parallel Solid-Phase Synthesis using a New Diethylsilylacetylenic Linker and Leading to Mestranol Derivatives with Potent Antiproliferative Activities on Multiple Cancer Cell Lines.

BACKGROUND: RM-133 belongs to a new family of aminosteroid derivatives demonstrating interesting anticancer properties, as confirmed in vivo in four mouse cancer xenograft models. However, the metabolic stability of RM-133 needs to be improved. After investigation, the replacement of its androstane scaffold by a more stable estrane scaffold led to the development of the mestranol derivative RM-581. METHODS: Using solid-phase strategy involving five steps, we quickly synthesized a series of RM-581 analogs using the recently-developed diethylsilylacetylenic linker. To establish structure-activity relationships, we then investigated their antiproliferative potency on a panel of cancer cell lines from various cancers (breast, prostate, ovarian and pancreatic). RESULTS: Some of the mestranol derivatives have shown in vitro anticancer activities that are close to, or better than, those observed for RM-581. Compound 23, a mestranol derivative having a ((3,5-dimethylbenzoyl)- L-prolyl)piperazine side chain at position C2, was found to be active as an antiproliferative agent (IC50 = 0.38 ± 0.34 to 3.17 ± 0.10 µM) and to be twice as active as RM-581 on LNCaP, PC-3, MCF-7, PANC-1 and OVCAR-3 cancer cells (IC50 = 0.56 ± 0.30, 0.89 ± 0.63, 1.36 ± 0.31, 2.47 ± 0.91 and 3.17 ± 0.10 µM, respectively). CONCLUSION: Easily synthesized in good yields by both solid-phase organic synthesis and classic solution-phase chemistry, promising compound 23 could be used as an antiproliferative agent on a variety of cancers, notably pancreatic and ovarian cancers, both having very bad prognoses.

Implication of STARD5 and cholesterol homeostasis disturbance in the endoplasmic reticulum stress-related response induced by pro-apoptotic aminosteroid RM-133.

The aminosteroid derivative RM-133 is an effective anticancer molecule for which proof of concept has been achieved in several mouse xenograph models (HL-60, MCF-7, PANC-1 and OVCAR-3). To promote this new family of molecules toward a clinical phase 1 trial, the mechanism of action governing the anticancer properties of the representative candidate RM-133 needs to be characterized. In vitro experiments were first used to determine that RM-133 causes apoptosis in cancer cells. Then, using proteomic and transcriptomic experiments, RM-133 cytotoxicity was proven to be achieved via the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-related apoptosis, which characterizes RM-133 as an endoplasmic reticulum stress aggravator (ERSA) anticancer drug. Furthermore, an shRNA-genome-wide screening has permitted to identify the steroidogenic acute regulator-related lipid transfer protein 5 (STARD5) as a major player in the RM-133 ER-related apoptosis mechanism, which was validated by an in vitro binding experiment. Altogether, the results presented herein suggest that RM-133 provokes a disturbance of cholesterol homeostasis via the implication of STARD5, which delivers an ERSA molecule to the ER. These results will be a springboard for RM-133 in its path toward clinical use.

Insight into the mode of action and selectivity of PBRM, a covalent steroidal inhibitor of 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1.

17ß-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (17ß-HSD1) is involved in the biosynthesis of estradiol, the major bioactive endogenous estrogen in mammals, and constitutes an interesting therapeutic target for estrogen-dependent diseases. A steroidal derivative, 3-{[(16ß,17ß)-3-(2-bromoethyl)-17-hydroxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-16-yl]methyl} benzamide (PBRM), has recently been described as a non-estrogenic, irreversible inhibitor of 17ß-HSD1. However, the mode of action of this inhibitor and its selectivity profile have not yet been elucidated. We assessed PBRM potency via in vitro kinetic measurements. The mechanism of enzyme inactivation was also investigated using interspecies (human, mouse, pig and monkey) comparisons via both in vitro assays and in silico analysis. Mouse and human plasma protein binding of PBRM was determined, whereas its selectivity of action was studied using a wide range of potential off-targets (e.g. GPCR, hERG, CYPs, etc.). The affinity constant (Ki=368nM) and the enzyme inactivation rate (kinact=0.087min-1) values for PBRM were determined with purified 17ß-HSD1. PBRM was found to be covalently linked to the enzyme. A long delay period (i.e. 3-5days) is required to recover 17ß-HSD1 activity following a pretreatment of breast and placenta cell lines with PBRM. Mechanistic analyses showed important interspecies differences of 17ß-HSD1 inhibition which support the importance of inactivation for PBRM effect. Evidences of the potency and selectivity of action presented herein for this first non-estrogenic and steroidal covalent irreversible inhibitor of 17ß-HSD1 warrant its further development as a potential drug candidate for estrogen-dependent disorders.

Design of a Mestranol 2-N-Piperazino-Substituted Derivative Showing Potent and Selective in†vitro and in†vivo Activities in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Models.

Anticancer structure-activity relationship studies on aminosteroid (5α-androstane) derivatives have emerged with a promising lead candidate: RM-133 (2ß-[1-(quinoline-2-carbonyl)pyrrolidine-2-carbonyl]-N-piperazine-5α-androstane-3α,17ß-diol), which possesses high in vitro and in vivo activities against several cancer cells, and selectivity over normal cells. However, the relatively weak metabolic stability of RM-133 has been a drawback to its progression toward clinical trials. We investigated the replacement of the androstane backbone by a more stable mestranol moiety. The resulting compound, called RM-581 ({4-[17α-ethynyl-17ß-hydroxy-3-methoxyestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-2-yl]piperazin-1-yl}[(2S)-1-(quinolin-2-ylcarbonyl)pyrrolidin-2-yl]methanone), was synthesized efficiently in only five steps from commercially available estrone. In comparison with RM-133, RM-581 was found to be twice as metabolically stable, retains potent cytotoxic activity in breast cancer MCF-7 cell culture, and fully blocks tumor growth in a mouse xenograft model of breast cancer. Advantageously, the selectivity over normal cells has been increased with this estrane version of RM-133. In fact, RM-581 showed a better selectivity index (15.3 vs. 3.0) for breast cancer MCF-7 cells over normal breast MCF-10A cells, and was found to be nontoxic toward primary human kidney proximal tubule cells at doses reaching 50 µm.

Explorative study on the anticancer activity, selectivity and metabolic stability of related analogs of aminosteroid RM-133.

RM-133 is a key representative of a new family of aminosteroids reported as potent anticancer agents. Although RM-133 produced interesting results in 4 mouse xenograft cancer models when injected subcutaneously, it needs to be improved to increase its in vivo potency. Thus, to obtain an analog of RM-133 with a better drug potential, a structure-activity relationship study was conducted by synthesizing eleven RM-133-related compounds and addressing their antiproliferative activity on 3 human cancer cells (HL-60, OVCAR-3 and PANC-1) and 3 human normal cell lines (primary ovary, pancreas and renal proximal tubule) as well as their metabolic stability in human liver microsomes. When the 2ß-tertiary amine of RM-133 was transformed into a salt or moved to position 3ß, the anticancer activity was lost. Modifying the orientation of the side chain of RM-133 increased anticancer activity and selectivity, but led to a drastic loss of stability. The protection of the 3α-hydroxyl of RM-133 by the formation of an ester or a carbamate stabilized the molecule against the phase I metabolic enzymes without affecting its anticancer activity. In comparison to RM-133, the 3-dimethylcarbamate derivative 3 is more selective for cancer cells over normal cells and is much more stable in liver microsomes. Those results support the use of a pro-drug strategy targeting the 3α-hydroxyl of RM-133 as an approach to improve its drug properties. The work presented will enable the development of an optimized anticancer drug of the aminosteroid family that is suitable for a future phase I clinical trial.

Impact of structural modifications at positions 13, 16 and 17 of 16ß-(m-carbamoylbenzyl)-estradiol on 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibition and estrogenic activity.

The chemical synthesis of four stereoisomers (compounds 5a-d) of 16ß-(m-carbamoylbenzyl)-estradiol, a potent reversible inhibitor of 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (17ß-HSD1), and two intermediates (compounds 3a and b) was performed. Assignment of all nuclear magnetic resonance signals confirmed the stereochemistry at positions 13, 16 and 17. Nuclear overhauser effects showed clear correlations supporting a C-ring chair conformation for 5a and b and a C-ring boat conformation for 5c and d. These compounds were tested as 17ß-HSD1 inhibitors and to assess their proliferative activity on estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cells (T-47D) and androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cells (LAPC-4). Steroid derivative 5a showed the best inhibitory activity for the transformation of estrone to estradiol (95, 82 and 27%, at 10, 1 and 0.1µM, respectively), but like the other isomers 5c and d, it was found to be estrogenic. The intermediate 3a, however, was weakly estrogenic at 1µM, not at all at 0.1µM, and showed an interesting inhibitory potency on 17ß-HSD1 (90, 59 and 22%, at 10, 1 and 0.1µM, respectively). As expected, no compound showed an androgenic activity. The binding modes for compounds 3a and b, 5a-d and CC-156 were evaluated from molecular modeling. While the non-polar interactions were conserved for all the inhibitors in their binding to 17ß-HSD1, differences in polar interactions and in binding conformational energies correlated to the inhibitory potencies.

Role of glucuronidation for hepatic detoxification and urinary elimination of toxic bile acids during biliary obstruction.

Biliary obstruction, a severe cholestatic condition, results in a huge accumulation of toxic bile acids (BA) in the liver. Glucuronidation, a conjugation reaction, is thought to protect the liver by both reducing hepatic BA toxicity and increasing their urinary elimination. The present study evaluates the contribution of each process in the overall BA detoxification by glucuronidation. Glucuronide (G), glycine, taurine conjugates, and unconjugated BAs were quantified in pre- and post-biliary stenting urine samples from 12 patients with biliary obstruction, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The same LC-MS/MS procedure was used to quantify intra- and extracellular BA-G in Hepatoma HepG2 cells. Bile acid-induced toxicity in HepG2 cells was evaluated using MTS reduction, caspase-3 and flow cytometry assays. When compared to post-treatment samples, pre-stenting urines were enriched in glucuronide-, taurine- and glycine-conjugated BAs. Biliary stenting increased the relative BA-G abundance in the urinary BA pool, and reduced the proportion of taurine- and glycine-conjugates. Lithocholic, deoxycholic and chenodeoxycholic acids were the most cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic/necrotic BAs for HepG2 cells. Other species, such as the cholic, hyocholic and hyodeoxycholic acids were nontoxic. All BA-G assayed were less toxic and displayed lower pro-apoptotic/necrotic effects than their unconjugated precursors, even if they were able to penetrate into HepG2 cells. Under severe cholestatic conditions, urinary excretion favors the elimination of amidated BAs, while glucuronidation allows the conversion of cytotoxic BAs into nontoxic derivatives.

The Human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase UGT2A1 and UGT2A2 enzymes are highly active in bile acid glucuronidation.

Bile acids (BA) are essential modulators of lipid, glucose, and cholesterol homeostasis, but they exert cytotoxic effects in the cholestatic liver. Glucuronidation, catalyzed by the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes is a pharmacologically relevant BA detoxification process. The present study characterized the BA-conjugating activity of the little-studied human UGTs of subfamily 2A: UGT2A1, 2A2, and 2A3. Recombinant UGT2As, expressed in baculovirus-infected insect cells, were assayed for the glucuronidation of six major bile acids: chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), cholic acid (CA), lithocholic acid (LCA), deoxycholic acid (DCA), hyocholic acid (HCA) and hyodeoxycholic acid (HDCA). UGT2A3 exhibited detectable but very low activity with all the tested BA substrates. UGT2A1 was highly efficient in forming LCA-3 and LCA-24G, CDCA-24, DCA-24, HCA-24, and HDCA-24G, whereas UGT2A2 was the most active enzyme for CA-24G and CDCA-24G formation and also was able to generate HDCA-6G, HDCA-24G, LCA-24G, and HCA-24G. The Km values of UGT2A1 varied between 102.2 ± 14.3 µM and 2.4 ± 1.2 mM. With the exception of CA-24G, a low affinity substrate for UGT2A2, all the Km values for UGT2A2 were in the 100 to 400 µM range. We demonstrate the high reactivity of the human UGT2A1 and UGT2A2 for bile acid glucuronidation. The physiologic importance of these reactions to BA disposition remains, however, to be clarified in vivo.

Regulation of endobiotics glucuronidation by ligand-activated transcription factors: physiological function and therapeutic potential.

Recent progresses in molecular pharmacology approaches have allowed the identification and characterization of a series of nuclear receptors (NR) which efficiently control the level UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) genes expression. These regulatory processes ensure optimized UGT expression in response to specific endogenous and/or exogenous stimuli. Interestingly, numerous endogenous activators of these NRs are conjugated by the UGT enzymes they regulate. In such a case, the NR-dependent regulation of UGT genes corresponds to a feedforward/feedback mechanism by which a bioactive molecule controls its own concentrations. In the present review, we will discuss i) how bilirubin reduces its circulating levels by activating AhR in the liver; ii) how bile acids modulate their hepatic glucuronidation via PXR- and FXR-dependent processes in enterohepatic tissues; and iii) how androgens inhibit their cellular metabolism in prostate cancer cells through an AR-dependent mechanism. Subsequently, with further discussion of the same examples (bilirubin and bile acids), we will illustrate how NR-dependent regulation of UGT enzymes may contribute to the beneficial effects of pharmacological activators of nuclear receptors, such as CAR and PPARa.

The human UGT1A3 enzyme conjugates norursodeoxycholic acid into a C23-ester glucuronide in the liver.

Norursodeoxycholic acid (norUDCA) exhibits efficient anti-cholestatic properties in an animal model of sclerosing cholangitis. norUDCA is eliminated as a C(23)-ester glucuronide (norUDCA-23G) in humans. The present study aimed at identifying the human UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzyme(s) involved in hepatic norUDCA glucuronidation and at evaluating the consequences of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the coding region of UGT genes on norUDCA-23G formation. The effects of norUDCA on the formation of the cholestatic lithocholic acid-glucuronide derivative and of rifampicin on hepatic norUDCA glucuronidation were also explored. In vitro glucuronidation assays were performed with microsomes from human tissues (liver and intestine) and HEK293 cells expressing human UGT enzymes and variant allozymes. UGT1A3 was identified as the major hepatic UGT enzyme catalyzing the formation of norUDCA-23G. Correlation studies using samples from a human liver bank (n = 16) indicated that the level of UGT1A3 protein is a strong determinant of in vitro norUDCA glucuronidation. Analyses of the norUDCA-conjugating activity by 11 UGT1A3 variant allozymes identified three phenotypes with high, low, and intermediate capacity. norUDCA is also identified as a competitive inhibitor for the hepatic formation of the pro-cholestatic lithocholic acid-glucuronide derivative, whereas norUDCA glucuronidation is weakly stimulated by rifampicin. This study identifies human UGT1A3 as the major enzyme for the hepatic norUDCA glucuronidation and supports that some coding polymorphisms affecting the conjugating activity of UGT1A3 in vitro may alter the pharmacokinetic properties of norUDCA in cholestasis treatment.

Effects of androgens on adipocyte differentiation and adipose tissue explant metabolism in men and women.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of aromatizable or nonaromatizable androgens on abdominal subcutaneous (SC) and omental (OM) adipose tissue lipid metabolism and adipogenesis in men and women. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: Primary organ and preadipocyte cultures were established from surgical samples obtained in men (n = 22) and women undergoing biliopancreatic diversions (n = 12) or gynaecological surgeries (n = 8). Cultures were treated with testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and methyltrienolone (R1881). MEASUREMENTS: Heparin-releasable lipoprotein lipase (HR-LPL) activity, glycerol release, adiponectin secretion, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity and lipid accumulation were measured. RESULTS: In organ cultures from men, DHT had a statistically significant inhibitory effect on HR-LPL activity in the OM compartment. Testosterone significantly inhibited HR-LPL activity in SC and OM cultures. In women, high DHT concentrations tended to inhibit HR-LPL activity in OM cultures. Minor androgenic effects were observed for basal and isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis as well as adiponectin release in men. On the other hand, adipocyte differentiation was significantly and dose-dependently inhibited by DHT, testosterone and R1881 in SC and OM cultures from both sexes. These effects did not differ according to adipose tissue depot but appeared to be more pronounced in women than in men. CONCLUSIONS: Androgens slightly decreased HR-LPL activity in adipose tissue organ cultures, but markedly inhibited adipogenesis in SC and OM primary preadipocyte cultures in both sexes. Androgenic effects on adipose tissue in men vs. women may not differ in terms of direction but in the magnitude of their negative impact on adipogenesis and lipid synthesis.