Off- to in-season body composition adaptations in elite male and female endurance and power event athletics competitors: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring elite athletes' body composition (BC) is vital for health and optimizing performance in sports emphasizing leanness, such as athletics. This study aims to investigate and compare sex- and event-specific off-to in-season BC changes in endurance and power event athletics competitors. METHODS: Elite male and female endurance athletes (> 800 m runners; n = 21) and power event athletes (sprinters, jumpers; n = 32) underwent dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans for whole and regional lean mass (LM), fat mass (FM), bone mineral content (BMC), and density (BMD) during off-season (September-October) and in-season (April-May). Linear mixed models tested between-group off-season differences in BC, within-group off-season to in-season changes, and between-group differences in change. To assess meaningful or least significant changes (LSC) in BC, DXA precision errors were determined from two consecutive total body scans in a subsample of athletes (n = 30). RESULTS: Male athletes (n = 26) gained significantly (p < 0.05) more body mass (BM; mean difference 1.5 [95% confidence interval (CI):0.5-2.4] kg), LM (843 [95% CI:-253:1459] g), and trunk LM (756 [-502:1156] g) than female athletes (n = 27). The proportion of changes in athlete's BC exceeding the LSC threshold for LM and trunk LM were 70% and 65% in males, and 48% and 26% in females. Significant (p < 0.05) within-group off-season to in-season increases in LM were found for male endurance and power athletes, and female power athletes. All groups significantly increased BMD (p < 0.05). Only male and female power athletes had significant in- to-off-season increases in BMC. 80% of all athletes who had a meaningful increase in BMC belonged to the power event group. No significant within- or between group change in FM was observed. CONCLUSIONS: The present study found that male athletes gained more BM, LM and trunk LM than females. Within-group increases in regional and whole-body LM and BMC were predominantly found among power event competitors. Incorporating individual meaningful changes alongside traditional statistics provided additional insights into sex and event-group differences. Future research on elite athletic event groups should include DXA measurements closer to major outdoor-season competitions, coupled with site-specific measures (ultrasound, MRI) for better detection of subtle changes in LM and FM.

Six Weeks of Aerobic Exercise in Untrained Men With Overweight/Obesity Improved Training Adaptations, Performance and Body Composition Independent of Oat/Potato or Milk Based Protein-Carbohydrate Drink Supplementation.

Background: Protein availability around aerobic exercise might benefit aerobic capacity and body composition in normal weight adults. However, it is unknown if individuals with overweight/obesity elicit similar adaptations or improve other cardiometabolic/health-related markers in response to different types of protein. Thus, our aim was to study the effect of supplementation of two different protein drinks in conjunction with exercise on aerobic capacity, body composition and blood health markers in untrained subjects with overweight or obesity. Methods: The present study measured training adaptation and health parameters over a 6 week period in untrained men with overweight/obesity (n = 28; BMI 30.4 ± 2.2 kg/m2) ingesting either plant- (Oat/Potato; n = 8) or animal-based (Milk; n = 10) protein-carbohydrate drinks (10 g of protein/serving), or a control carbohydrate drink (n = 10) acutely before and after each training session (average three sessions/week @ 70% HRmax). Pre-post intervention V ˙ O 2 peak , muscle biopsies and blood samples were collected, body composition measured (DXA) and two different exercise tests performed. Body weight was controlled with participants remaining weight stable throughout the intervention. Results: For the groups combined, the training intervention significantly increased V ˙ O 2 peak (8%; P < 0.001), performance in a time-to-exhaustion trial (~ 100%; P < 0.001), mitochondrial protein content and enzyme activity (~20-200%). Lean body mass increased (1%; P < 0.01) and fat mass decreased (3%; P < 0.01). No significant effects on fasting blood glucose, insulin, lipids or markers of immune function were observed. There were no significant interactions between drink conditions for training adaptation or blood measurements. For body composition, the Oat/Potato and carbohydrate group decreased leg fat mass significantly more than the Milk group (interaction P < 0.05). Conclusions: Aerobic capacity and body composition were improved and a number of mitochondrial, glycolytic and oxidative skeletal muscle proteins and enzyme activities were upregulated by a 6 week training intervention. However, none of the parameters for endurance training adaptation were influenced by protein supplementation before and after each training session.

Corrigendum: A Hydrogel Drink With High Fructose Content Generates Higher Exogenous Carbohydrate Oxidation and a Reduced Drop in Dental Biofilm pH Compared to Two Other, Commercially Available, Carbohydrate Sports Drinks.

[This corrects the article on p. 88 in vol. 7, PMID: 32596251.].

A Hydrogel Drink With High Fructose Content Generates Higher Exogenous Carbohydrate Oxidation and Lower Dental Biofilm pH Compared to Two Other, Commercially Available, Carbohydrate Sports Drinks.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the substrate oxidation of three commercially available, 14%-carbohydrate sports drinks with different compositions, osmolality, and pH for their impact on dental exposure to low pH. In a cross-over, randomized double-blinded design, 12 endurance athletes (age 31. 2 ± 7.7 years, V ˙ O2max 65.6 ± 5.0 mL·kg-1) completed 180 min of cycling at 55% Wmax. During the first 100 min of cycling, athletes consumed amylopectin starch (AP), maltodextrin+sucrose (MD+SUC), or maltodextrin+fructose hydrogel (MD+FRU) drinks providing 95 g carbohydrate·h-1, followed by water intake only at 120 and 160 min. Fuel use was determined using indirect calorimetry and stable-isotope techniques. Additionally, dental biofilm pH was measured using the microtouch method in a subsample of participants (n = 6) during resting conditions before, and at different time intervals up to 45 min following a single bolus of drink. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation (CHOEXO) during the 2nd hour of exercise was significantly (P < 0.05) different between all three drinks: MD+FRU (1.17 ± 0.17 g·min-1), MD+SUC (1.01 ± 0.13 g·min-1), and AP (0.84 ± 0.11 g·min-1). At the end of exercise, CHOEXO and blood glucose concentrations (3.54 ± 0.50, 4.07 ± 0.67, and 4.28 ± 0.47 mmol·L-1, respectively) were significantly lower post MD+FRU consumption than post MD+SUC and AP consumption (P < 0.05). Biofilm acidogenicity at rest demonstrated a less pronounced pH fall for MD+FRU compared to the acidulant-containing MD+SUC and AP (P < 0.05). In conclusion, while total intake of MD+FRU showed signs of completed uptake before end of monitoring, this was less so for MD+SUC, and not at all the case for AP. Thus, this study showed that despite carbohydrates being encapsulated in a hydrogel, a higher CHOEXO was observed following MD+FRU drink ingestion compared to AP and MD+SUC consumption upon exposure to the acidic environment of the stomach. This finding may be related to the higher fructose content of the MD+FRU drink compared with the MD+SUC and AP drinks. Furthermore, a carbohydrate solution without added acidulants, which are commonly included in commercial sport drinks, may have less deleterious effects on oral health.

Alginate and HM-pectin in sports-drink give rise to intra-gastric gelation in vivo.

The addition of gelling polysaccharides to sport-drinks may provide improved tolerability of drinks with high concentration of digestible carbohydrates (CHO), otherwise known to increase the risk of gastro-intestinal complaints among athletes under prolonged exercise. The physico-chemical properties of a drink containing 14 wt% of digestible CHO (0.7 : 1 fructose and maltodextrin-ratio), 0.2 wt% of HM-pectin/alginate and 0.06 wt%. sodium chloride were examined under in vitro gastric conditions using rheology and large deformation testing. The in vivo gelling behaviour of the drink was studied using magnetic resonance imaging of subjects at rest together with blood glucose measurements. The in vivo results confirm gelation of the test drink, with no gel remaining in the stomach at 60 min and blood glucose values were similar to control. The physico-chemical characterisation of the acidified test drink confirms the formation of a weak gel through which low Mw CHO can diffuse.

Effects of supplementing with an 18% carbohydrate-hydrogel drink versus a placebo during whole-body exercise in -5 °C with elite cross-country ski athletes: a crossover study.

BACKGROUND: Whilst the ergogenic effects of carbohydrate intake during prolonged exercise are well-documented, few investigations have studied the effects of carbohydrate ingestion during cross-country skiing, a mode of exercise that presents unique metabolic demands on athletes due to the combined use of large upper- and lower-body muscle masses. Moreover, no previous studies have investigated exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates during cross-country skiing. The current study investigated the effects of a 13C-enriched 18% multiple-transportable carbohydrate solution (1:0.8 maltodextrin:fructose) with additional gelling polysaccharides (CHO-HG) on substrate utilization and gastrointestinal symptoms during prolonged cross-country skiing exercise in the cold, and subsequent double-poling time-trial performance in ~ 20 °C. METHODS: Twelve elite cross-country ski athletes (6 females, 6 males) performed 120-min of submaximal roller-skiing (69.3 ± 2.9% of [Formula: see text]O2peak) in -5 °C while receiving either 2.2 g CHO-HG·min- 1 or a non-caloric placebo administered in a double-blind, randomized manner. Whole-body substrate utilization and exogenous carbohydrate oxidation was calculated for the last 60 min of the submaximal exercise. The maximal time-trial (2000 m for females, 2400 m for males) immediately followed the 120-min submaximal bout. Repeated-measures ANOVAs with univariate follow-ups were conducted, as well as independent and paired t-tests, and significance was set at P < 0.05. Data are presented as mean ± SD. RESULTS: Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation contributed 27.6 ± 6.6% to the total energy yield with CHO-HG and the peak exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rate reached 1.33 ± 0.27 g·min- 1. Compared to placebo, fat oxidation decreased by 9.5 ± 4.8% with CHO-HG, total carbohydrate oxidation increased by 9.5 ± 4.8% and endogenous carbohydrate utilization decreased by 18.1 ± 6.4% (all P < 0.05). No severe gastrointestinal symptoms were reported in either trial and euhydration was maintained in both trials. Time-trial performance (8.4 ± 0.4 min) was not improved following CHO-HG compared to placebo (- 0.8 ± 3.5 s; 95% confidence interval - 3.0 to 1.5 s; P = 0.46). No sex differences were identified in substrate utilization or relative performance. CONCLUSIONS: Ingestion of an 18% multiple-transportable carbohydrate solution with gelling polysaccharides was found to be well-tolerated during 120 min of submaximal whole-body exercise, but did not improve subsequent maximal double-poling performance.

Metabolism and Whole-Body Fat Oxidation Following Postexercise Carbohydrate or Protein Intake.

PURPOSE: This study investigated how postexercise intake of placebo (PLA), protein (PRO), or carbohydrate (CHO) affected fat oxidation (FO) and metabolic parameters during recovery and subsequent exercise. METHODS: In a cross-over design, 12 moderately trained women (VO2max 45 ± 6 ml·min-1·kg-1) performed three days of testing. A 23-min control (CON) incremental FO bike test (30-80% VO2max) was followed by 60 min exercise at 75% VO2max. Immediately postexercise, subjects ingested PLA, 20 g PRO, or 40 g CHO followed by a second FO bike test 2 h later. RESULTS: Maximal fat oxidation (MFO) and the intensity at which MFO occurs (Fatmax) increased at the second FO test compared to the first following all three postexercise drinks (MFO for CON = 0.28 ± 0.08, PLA = 0.57 ± 0.13, PRO = 0.52 ± 0.08, CHO = 0.44 ± 0.12 g fat·min-1; Fatmax for CON = 41 ± 7, PLA = 54 ± 4, PRO = 55 ± 6, CHO = 50 ± 8 %VO2max, p < 0.01 for all values compared to CON). Resting FO, MFO, and Fatmax were not significantly different between PLA and PRO, but lower for CHO. PRO and CHO increased insulin levels at 1 h postexercise, though both glucose and insulin were equal with PLA at 2 h postexercise. Increased postexercise ketone levels only occurred with PLA. CONCLUSION: Protein supplementation immediately postexercise did not affect the doubling in whole body fat oxidation seen during a subsequent exercise trial 2 h later. Neither did it affect resting fat oxidation during the postexercise period despite increased insulin levels and attenuated ketosis. Carbohydrate intake dampened the increase in fat oxidation during the second test, though a significant increase was still observed compared to the first test.

Hydration status in elite wrestlers, judokas, boxers, and taekwondo athletes on competition day.

Weight category athletes are known for practicing rapid weight loss before competition weigh-in. After weigh-in, athletes strive to restore euhydration and body mass through food and fluid intake. The aim of the current study was to assess prevalence of hypohydration at competition time among elite athletes' in four different combat sports, and how water intake and timing of official weigh-in were related to hydration status. Participants were 31 taekwondo practitioners and wrestlers who performed evening weigh-in (EWI) the night before competition day and had thus time for rehydration, and 32 boxers and judokas conducting competition day morning weigh-in (MWI). In total, 32% were female. Urine specific gravity (USG) was measured by refractometry on the competition day's first morning urine sample. Hypohydration was defined as USG ≥ 1.020 and serious hypohydration as USG > 1.030. Water intake was measured by means of dietary records. The prevalence of hypohydration was 89% in the morning of competition day. Serious hypohydration was also prevalent. This was found in over 50% of MWI athletes and in 42% of the EWI group. A higher water intake, from both fluids and solid foods, in the evening before competition day was not associated with a more favorable hydration status the following morning. In conclusion, neither weigh-in close to competition nor evening weigh-in with more time for rehydration seems to prevent hypohydration before competition.

Dietary intake at competition in elite Olympic combat sports.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate elite female (n = 21) and male (n = 47) combat sports athletes' (n = 68; mean age (± SD) 21.3 ± 3.8 years; mean height 177 ± 10.2 cm) dietary intake between weigh-in and the first bout in Olympic combat sports. The data were collected at 6 separate tournaments and measurements included estimated food records, time for recovery, and body weight (BW) at weigh-in and first match. In total, 33 athletes participated in wrestling and taekwondo, sports with extended recovery times, and 35 athletes in judo and boxing, sports with limited recovery time. The results displayed that despite a mean consumption of food and drinks corresponding to 4.2 kg, the athletes only regained an average of 1.9 kg BW during recovery. Water accounted for 86% of the total intake. For each liter of water consumed, athletes gained 0.57 kg BW, when excluding heavy weight athletes (n = 5). Carbohydrate consumption was 5.5 g/kg BW, compared with the recommended 8-10 g/kg BW. In total, one-quarter of the consumed water originated from carbohydrate-rich drinks. Given the average recovery time of 18 (wrestling, taekwondo) versus 8 hr (judo, boxing), the former group consumed twice the amount of water, carbohydrates, protein, and fat as the latter group. In conclusion, a large proportion of the participants did not meet the recovery nutrition guidelines for carbohydrates. In addition, the discrepancy between nutrient intake and weight gain points to the physiological barriers to retaining fluids during a limited recovery time after engaging in weight making practices.

Practices of weight regulation among elite athletes in combat sports: a matter of mental advantage?

CONTEXT: The combination of extensive weight loss and inadequate nutritional strategies used to lose weight rapidly for competition in weight-category sports may negatively affect athletic performance and health. OBJECTIVE: To explore the reasoning of elite combat-sport athletes about rapid weight loss and regaining of weight before competitions. DESIGN: Qualitative study. SETTING: With grounded theory as a theoretical framework, we employed a cross-examinational approach including interviews, observations, and Internet sources. Sports observations were obtained at competitions and statements by combat-sport athletes were collected on the Internet. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Participants in the interviews were 14 Swedish national team athletes (9 men, 5 women; age range, 18 to 36 years) in 3 Olympic combat sports (wrestling, judo, and taekwondo). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Semistructured interviews with 14 athletes from the Swedish national teams in wrestling, judo, and taekwondo were conducted at a location of each participant's choice. The field observations were conducted at European competitions in these 3 sports. In addition, interviews and statements made by athletes in combat sports were collected on the Internet. RESULTS: Positive aspects of weight regulation other than gaining physical advantage emerged from the data during the analysis: sport identity, mental diversion, and mental advantage. Together and individually, these categories point toward the positive aspects of weight regulation experienced by the athletes. Practicing weight regulation mediates a self-image of being "a real athlete." Weight regulation is also considered mentally important as a part of the precompetition preparation, serving as a coping strategy by creating a feeling of increased focus and commitment. Moreover, a mental advantage relative to one's opponents can be gained through the practice of weight regulation. CONCLUSIONS: Weight regulation has mentally important functions extending beyond the common notion that combat-sport athletes reduce their weight merely to gain a physical edge over their opponents.

The food and weight combat. A problematic fight for the elite combat sports athlete.

Weight reduction in athletes is motivated by optimisation of performance, aesthetic reasons or to achieve a pre-designated weight. Previous research has shown that dietary restraint and short term weight regulation frequently takes place among combat sports athletes such as wrestlers and judokas. The aim of this study was to explore negative experiences related to dietary strategies and weight-making practises used by elite combat sports athletes. Using semi-structured interviews, 14 Swedish national team athletes in wrestling, judo and taekwondo were asked about their dietary intake and their engagement in both long- and short-term weight regulation practises. Content analysis of the transcribed interviews, display a constant struggle regarding nutritional standpoints. Sport demands such as achieving an optimal weight and nutritional intake were considered as central in order for excellent performance. Adhering to these demands was found to be problematic however, primarily because of; (1) negative physiological responses and (2) opposing ideals of a non-sport related nature, such as the importance of the athletes to be healthy and social in their everyday lives.