Mutations in Hypervariable Domain of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus nsP3 Protein Differentially Affect Viral Replication.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is one of the important human and animal pathogens. It forms replication enzyme complexes (RCs) containing viral nonstructural proteins (nsPs) that mediate the synthesis of virus-specific RNAs. The assembly and associated functions of RC also depend on the presence of a specific set of host proteins. Our study demonstrates that the hypervariable domain (HVD) of VEEV nsP3 interacts with the members of the FXR family of cellular proteins and also binds the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain-containing proteins CD2AP and SH3KBP1. Interactions with FXR family members are mediated by the C-terminal repeating peptide of HVD. A single short, minimal motif identified in this study is sufficient for driving efficient VEEV replication in the absence of HVD interactions with other host proteins. The SH3 domain-containing proteins bind to another fragment of VEEV HVD. They can promote viral replication in the absence of FXR-HVD interactions albeit less efficiently. VEEV replication can be also switched from an FXR-dependent to a chikungunya virus-specific, G3BP-dependent mode. The described modifications of VEEV HVD have a strong impact on viral replication in vitro and pathogenesis. Their effects on viral pathogenesis depend on mouse age and the genetic background of the virus.IMPORTANCE The replication of alphaviruses is determined by specific sets of cellular proteins, which mediate the assembly of viral replication complexes. Some of these critical host factors interact with the hypervariable domain (HVD) of alphavirus nsP3. In this study, we have explored binding sites of host proteins, which are specific partners of nsP3 HVD of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. We also define the roles of these interactions in viral replication both in vitro and in vivo A mechanistic understanding of the binding of CD2AP, SH3KBP1, and FXR protein family members to VEEV HVD uncovers important aspects of alphavirus evolution and determines new targets for the development of alphavirus-specific drugs and directions for viral attenuation and vaccine development.

Paralympic Medicine: The Road to Rio.

Over the past 10 years, our team has attended numerous Paralympic games and International Paralympic Committee (IPC)-sanctioned events where we have accumulated the largest data set to date from elite athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI). This empirical evidence has allowed us to address critical questions related to health and athletic performance in these incredibly medically complex individuals. Namely, does autonomic function influence performance? Can we account for this with the present sport classification? How can we prevent the doping practice of self-inducing life-threatening episodes of hypertension to improve performance (termed "boosting")? How does extremely high participation in routine upper-body wheelchair exercise impact cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease risk? Is it possible to improve the sport classification to level the playing field between athletes with and without autonomic dysfunction? Herein, we will narratively address these questions, and provide our perspective on future directions and recommendations moving forward. Our extensive clinical experience and comprehensive dataset suggest preserved autonomic function is critical for elite performance. We will explore how an easy-to-execute test may be able to predict which individuals are most likely to develop autonomic dysfunctions that may negatively affect their health and performance. We also will evaluate the possibility that a level playing field may be even more difficult to establish than once thought, considering the importance of not only voluntary movement to performance, but also autonomic function. Finally, we also will discuss new changes in screening guidelines at Rio to assess the occurrence of boosting, which is a banned practice by the IPC.

Venezuelan and western equine encephalitis virus E1 liposome antigen nucleic acid complexes protect mice from lethal challenge with multiple alphaviruses.

Eastern, Venezuelan and western equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV) are mosquito-borne viruses that cause substantial disease in humans and other vertebrates. Vaccines are limited and current treatment options have not proven successful. In this report, we vaccinated outbred mice with lipid-antigen-nucleic acid-complexes (LANACs) containing VEEV E1+WEEV E1 antigen and characterized protective efficacy against lethal EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV challenge. Vaccination resulted in complete protection against EEEV, VEEV, and WEEV in CD-1 mice. Measurements of bioluminescence and plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs) indicate that LANAC VEEV E1+WEEV E1 vaccination is sterilizing against VEEV and WEEV challenge; whereas immunity to EEEV is not sterilizing. Passive transfer of rabbit VEEV E1+WEEV E1 immune serum to naive mice extended the mean time to death (MTD) of EEEV challenged mice and provided significant protection from lethal VEEV and WEEV challenge.

Entry Sites of Venezuelan and Western Equine Encephalitis Viruses in the Mouse Central Nervous System following Peripheral Infection.

UNLABELLED: Venezuelan and western equine encephalitis viruses (VEEV and WEEV; Alphavirus; Togaviridae) are mosquito-borne pathogens causing central nervous system (CNS) disease in humans and equids. Adult CD-1 mice also develop CNS disease after infection with VEEV and WEEV. Adult CD-1 mice infected by the intranasal (i.n.) route, showed that VEEV and WEEV enter the brain through olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). In this study, we injected the mouse footpad with recombinant WEEV (McMillan) or VEEV (subtype IC strain 3908) expressing firefly luciferase (fLUC) to simulate mosquito infection and examined alphavirus entry in the CNS. Luciferase expression served as a marker of infection detected as bioluminescence (BLM) by in vivo and ex vivo imaging. BLM imaging detected WEEV and VEEV at 12 h postinoculation (hpi) at the injection site (footpad) and as early as 72 hpi in the brain. BLM from WEEV.McM-fLUC and VEEV.3908-fLUC injections was initially detected in the brain's circumventricular organs (CVOs). No BLM activity was detected in the olfactory neuroepithelium or OSNs. Mice were also injected in the footpad with WEEV.McM expressing DsRed (Discosoma sp.) and imaged by confocal fluorescence microscopy. DsRed imaging supported our BLM findings by detecting WEEV in the CVOs prior to spreading along the neuronal axis to other brain regions. Taken together, these findings support our hypothesis that peripherally injected alphaviruses enter the CNS by hematogenous seeding of the CVOs followed by centripetal spread along the neuronal axis. IMPORTANCE: VEEV and WEEV are mosquito-borne viruses causing sporadic epidemics in the Americas. Both viruses are associated with CNS disease in horses, humans, and mouse infection models. In this study, we injected VEEV or WEEV, engineered to express bioluminescent or fluorescent reporters (fLUC and DsRed, respectively), into the footpads of outbred CD-1 mice to simulate transmission by a mosquito. Reporter expression serves as detectable bioluminescent and fluorescent markers of VEEV and WEEV replication and infection. Bioluminescence imaging, histological examination, and confocal fluorescence microscopy were used to identify early entry sites of these alphaviruses in the CNS. We observed that specific areas of the brain (circumventricular organs [CVOs]) consistently showed the earliest signs of infection with VEEV and WEEV. Histological examination supported VEEV and WEEV entering the brain of mice at specific sites where the blood-brain barrier is naturally absent.