Assessing the multiple benefits of partially protected marine protected areas in Australia: A systematic review protocol.

BACKGROUND: There is global pressure to protect more of the world's oceans, primarily to protect biodiversity, and to fulfill the "30 by 30" goal set by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) that has recently been ratified under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the fifteenth Conference of Parties (COP-15). Fully protected marine protected areas (MPAs) provide the highest level of protection for biodiversity from destructive or extractive practices and may limit access to the area itself. Fully protected MPAs (also commonly referred to as 'no-take MPAs') ban all fishing activities, thereby removing the realisation of direct economic and social benefits from resource extraction within these areas. However, fully protected MPAs can still act as source of productivity to surrounding areas, while also providing an important scientific reference role for off-reserve management thereby providing indirect economic and social outcomes, as well as biodiversity benefits. Sustainable marine resource management strives to achieve 'triple-bottom line' benefits, where economic, social, and biodiversity benefits are maximised in managed areas of the ocean. Implementing 'partially protected' areas (PPAs) in areas of high biodiversity value (i.e., inshore, productive areas of the ocean) that allow for some extractive activities, may allow us to supplement fully MPAs to meet IUCN conservation goals, while maximising social and economic benefits. However, our current understanding lacks explicit quantitative assessments of whether and how PPAs can benefit (or otherwise) biodiversity, while also providing economic and social benefits. This study provides a method to systematically review the scientific and legislative literature to understand how PPAs may contribute to conserving biodiversity while also providing social and economic benefits to Australia. METHODS AND EXPECTED OUTPUTS: The implementation of partially protected areas (PPAs) requires careful consideration of many potentially competing factors, and an understanding of the types of partial protection already in place in a region. We have developed a systematic literature review protocol focussing on the primary research question: "What is the current state of partially protected area (PPA) implementation across Australian marine areas?". The aim of the review is to provide marine resource managers with a comprehensive overview of PPAs in Australia, including associated goals and stated management strategies to achieve these goals, and a methodological approach that may be utilised globally. The review protocol was designed by the research team for a Fisheries Resource and Development Corporation (FRDC) strategic research grant and will seek input from a project steering committee for the project on aggregation of the initial results. The steering committee is made up of stakeholders from a wide range of backgrounds and interests, covering marine conservation, fisheries management, Indigenous values, and academic research in Australia. Multiple academic databases, alongside Australian Federal, State, and Territory legislation and related policies will be reviewed using Boolean keyword search strings for both academic databases and relevant grey literature. Results from eligible documents will be compiled and insights from the review collated to provide information on the status of PPA implementation in Australia.

Disruptive colouration in reef fish: does matching the background reduce predation risk?

Animals use disruptive colouration to prevent detection or recognition by potential predators or prey. Highly contrasting elements within colour patterns, including vertical or horizontal bars, are thought to be effective at distracting attention away from body form and reducing detection likelihood. However, it is unclear whether such patterns need to be a good match to the spatial characteristics of the background to gain cryptic benefits. We tested this hypothesis using the iconic vertically barred humbug damselfish, Dascyllus aruanus (Linneaus 1758), a small reef fish that lives among the finger-like projections of branching coral colonies. Using behavioural experiments, we demonstrated that the spatial frequency of the humbug pattern does not need to exactly match the spatial frequency of the coral background to reduce the likelihood of being attacked by two typical reef fish predators: slingjaw wrasse, Epibulus insidiator (Pallas 1770), and coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus (Lacépède 1802). Indeed, backgrounds with a slightly higher spatial frequency than the humbug body pattern provided more protection from predation than well-matched backgrounds. These results were consistent for both predator species, despite differences in their mode of foraging and visual acuity, which was measured using anatomical techniques. We also showed that a slight mismatch in the orientation of the vertical bars did not increase the chances of detection. However, the likelihood of attack did increase significantly when the bars were perpendicular to the background. Our results provide evidence that fish camouflage is more complex than it initially appears, with likely many factors influencing the detection likelihood of prey by relevant predators.

Multiple Genetic Mechanisms Contribute to Visual Sensitivity Variation in the Labridae.

Coral reefs are one of the most spectrally diverse environments, both in terms of habitat and animal color. Species identity, sex, and camouflage are drivers of the phenotypic diversity seen in coral reef fishes, but how the phenotypic diversity is reflected in the genotype remains to be answered. The labrids are a large, polyphyletic family of coral reef fishes that display a diverse range of colors, including developmental color morphs and extensive behavioral ecologies. Here, we assess the opsin sequence and expression diversity among labrids from the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. We found that labrids express a diverse palette of visual opsins, with gene duplications in both RH2 and LWS genes. The majority of opsins expressed were within the mid-to-long wavelength sensitive classes (RH2 and LWS). Three of the labrid species expressed SWS1 (ultra-violet sensitive) opsins with the majority expressing the violet-sensitive SWS2B gene and none expressing SWS2A. We used knowledge about spectral tuning sites to calculate approximate spectral sensitivities (λmax) for individual species' visual pigments, which corresponded well with previously published λmax values for closely related species (SWS1: 356-370 nm; SWS2B: 421-451 nm; RH2B: 452-492 nm; RH2A: 516-528 nm; LWS1: 554-555 nm; LWS2: 561-562 nm). In contrast to the phenotypic diversity displayed via color patterns and feeding ecology, there was little amino acid diversity within the known opsin sequence tuning sites. However, gene duplications and differential expression provide alternative mechanisms for tuning visual pigments, resulting in variable visual sensitivities among labrid species.

Phenotypic plasticity confers multiple fitness benefits to a mimic.

Animal communication is often deceptive; however, such dishonesty can become ineffective if it is used too often, is used out of context, or is too easy to detect [1-3]. Mimicry is a common form of deception, and most mimics gain the greatest fitness benefits when they are rare compared to their models [3, 4]. If mimics are encountered too frequently or if their model is absent, avoidance learning of noxious models is disrupted (Batesian mimicry [3]), or receivers become more vigilant and learn to avoid perilous mimics (aggressive mimicry [4]). Mimics can moderate this selective constraint by imperfectly resembling multiple models [5], through polymorphisms [6], or by opportunistically deploying mimetic signals [1, 7]. Here we uncover a novel mechanism to escape the constraints of deceptive signaling: phenotypic plasticity allows mimics to deceive targets using multiple guises. Using a combination of behavioral, cell histological, and molecular methods, we show that a coral reef fish, the dusky dottyback (Pseudochromis fuscus), flexibly adapts its body coloration to mimic differently colored reef fishes and in doing so gains multiple fitness benefits. We find that by matching the color of other reef fish, dottybacks increase their success of predation upon juvenile fish prey and are therefore able to deceive their victims by resembling multiple models. Furthermore, we demonstrate that changing color also increases habitat-associated crypsis that decreases the risk of being detected by predators. Hence, when mimics and models share common selective pressures, flexible imitation of models might inherently confer secondary benefits to mimics. Our results show that phenotypic plasticity can act as a mechanism to ease constraints that are typically associated with deception. VIDEO ABSTRACT.