Bone morphogenetic proteins, eye patterning, and retinocollicular map formation in the mouse.

Patterning events during early eye formation determine retinal cell fate and can dictate the behavior of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons as they navigate toward central brain targets. The temporally and spatially regulated expression of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and their receptors in the retina are thought to play a key role in this process, initiating gene expression cascades that distinguish different regions of the retina, particularly along the dorsoventral axis. Here, we examine the role of BMP and a potential downstream effector, EphB, in retinotopic map formation in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and superior colliculus (SC). RGC axon behaviors during retinotopic map formation in wild-type mice are compared with those in several strains of mice with engineered defects of BMP and EphB signaling. Normal RGC axon sorting produces axon order in the optic tract that reflects the dorsoventral position of the parent RGCs in the eye. A dramatic consequence of disrupting BMP signaling is a missorting of RGC axons as they exit the optic chiasm. This sorting is not dependent on EphB. When BMP signaling in the developing eye is genetically modified, RGC order in the optic tract and targeting in the LGN and SC are correspondingly disrupted. These experiments show that BMP signaling regulates dorsoventral RGC cell fate, RGC axon behavior in the ascending optic tract, and retinotopic map formation in the LGN and SC through mechanisms that are in part distinct from EphB signaling in the LGN and SC.

Pretarget sorting of retinocollicular axons in the mouse.

The map of the retina onto the optic tectum is a highly conserved feature of the vertebrate visual system; the mechanism by which this mapping is accomplished during development is a long-standing problem of neurobiology. The early suggestion by Roger Sperry that the map is formed through interactions between retinal ganglion cell axons and target cells within the tectum has gained significant experimental support and widespread acceptance. Nonetheless, reports in a variety of species indicate that some aspects of retinotopic order exist within the optic tract, leading to the suggestion that this "preordering" of retinal axons may play a role in the formation of the mature tectal map. A satisfactory account of pretarget order must provide the mechanism by which such axon order develops. Insofar as this mechanism must ultimately be determined genetically, the mouse suggests itself as the natural species in which to pursue these studies. Quantitative and repeatable methods are required to assess the contribution of candidate genes in mouse models. For these reasons, we have undertaken a quantitative study of the degree of retinotopic order within the optic tract and nerve of wild-type mice both before and after the development of the retinotectal map. Our methods are based on tract tracing using lipophilic dyes, and our results indicate that there is a reestablishment of dorsoventral but not nasotemporal retinal order when the axons pass through the chiasm and that this order is maintained throughout the subsequent tract. Furthermore, this dorsoventral retinotopic order is well established by the day after birth, long before the final target zone is discernible within the tectum. We conclude that pretarget sorting of axons according to origin along the dorsoventral axis of the retina is both spatially and chronologically appropriate to contribute to the formation of the retinotectal map, and we suggest that these methods be used to search for the molecular basis of such order by using available mouse genetic models.

Evidence for an instructive role of retinal activity in retinotopic map refinement in the superior colliculus of the mouse.

Although it is widely accepted that molecular mechanisms play an important role in the initial establishment of retinotopic maps, it has also long been argued that activity-dependent factors act in concert with molecular mechanisms to refine topographic maps. Evidence of a role for retinal activity in retinotopic map refinement in mammals is limited, and nothing is known about the effect of spontaneous retinal activity on the development of receptive fields in the superior colliculus. Using anatomical and physiological methods with two genetically manipulated mouse models and pharmacological interventions in wild-type mice, we show that spontaneous retinal waves instruct retinotopic map refinement in the superior colliculus of the mouse. Activity-dependent mechanisms may play a preferential role in the mapping of the nasal-temporal axis of the retina onto the colliculus, because refinement is particularly impaired along this axis in mutants without retinal waves. Interfering with both axon guidance cues and activity-dependent cues in the same animal has a dramatic cumulative effect. These experiments demonstrate how axon guidance cues and activity-dependent factors combine to instruct retinotopic map development.

Adenylate Cyclase 1 dependent refinement of retinotopic maps in the mouse.

Development of the retino-collicular pathway has served as an important model system for examining the cellular mechanisms responsible for the establishment of neuronal maps of the sensory periphery. A consensus has emerged that molecular or chemical cues are responsible for the initial establishment of gross topography in this map, and that activity dependent factors sharpen this initial rough topography into precision. However, there is little evidence available concerning the biochemical signaling mechanisms that are responsible for topographic map refinement in the retino-collicular system. Using a combination of anatomical and biochemical techniques in normal and mutant mice, we provide evidence that Ca2+/Calmodulin regulated Adenylate Cyclase 1 (AC1), which is strongly expressed in the superficial layers of the colliculus, is an important downstream signaling agent for activity dependent map refinement in the superior colliculus.

Adenylyl cyclase I regulates AMPA receptor trafficking during mouse cortical 'barrel' map development.

Cortical map formation requires the accurate targeting, synaptogenesis, elaboration and refinement of thalamocortical afferents. Here we demonstrate the role of Ca2+/calmodulin-activated type-I adenylyl cyclase (AC1) in regulating the strength of thalamocortical synapses through modulation of AMPA receptor (AMPAR) trafficking using barrelless mice, a mutant without AC1 activity or cortical 'barrel' maps. Barrelless synapses are stuck in an immature state that contains few functional AMPARs that are rarely silent (NMDAR-only). Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) at thalamocortical synapses require postsynaptic protein kinase A (PKA) activity and are difficult to induce in barrelless mice, probably due to an inability to properly regulate synaptic AMPAR trafficking. Consistent with this, both the extent of PKA phosphorylation on AMPAR subunit GluR1 and the expression of surface GluR1 are reduced in barrelless neurons. These results suggest that activity-dependent mechanisms operate through an AC1/PKA signaling pathway to target some synapses for consolidation and others for elimination during barrel map formation.