Optimization of a mouse model of pancreatic cancer to simulate the human phenotypes of metastasis and cachexia.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) presents with a high mortality rate. Two important features of PDAC contribute to this poor outcome. The first is metastasis which occurs in ~ 80% of PDAC patients. The second is cachexia, which compromises treatment tolerance for patients and reduces their quality of life. Although various mouse models of PDAC exist, recapitulating both metastatic and cachectic features have been challenging. METHODS: Here, we optimize an orthotopic mouse model of PDAC by altering several conditions, including the subcloning of parental murine PDAC cells, implantation site, number of transplanted cells, and age of recipient mice. We perform spatial profiling to compare primary and metastatic immune microenvironments and RNA sequencing to gain insight into the mechanisms of muscle wasting in PDAC-induced cachexia, comparing non-metastatic to metastatic conditions. RESULTS: These modifications extend the time course of the disease and concurrently increase the rate of metastasis to approximately 70%. Furthermore, reliable cachexia endpoints are achieved in both PDAC mice with and without metastases, which is reminiscent of patients. We also find that cachectic muscles from PDAC mice with metastasis exhibit a similar transcriptional profile to muscles derived from mice and patients without metastasis. CONCLUSION: Together, this model is likely to be advantageous in both advancing our understanding of the mechanism of PDAC cachexia, as well as in the evaluation of novel therapeutics.

Cancer cachexia: involvement of an expanding macroenvironment.

Advanced cancers often present with the cachexia syndrome that impacts peripheral tissues, leading to involuntary weight loss and reduced prognosis. The central tissues undergoing depletion are skeletal muscle and adipose, but recent findings reveal an expanding tumor macroenvironment involving organ crosstalks that underlie the cachectic state.

VIVA1: a more invasive subclone of MDA-MB-134VI invasive lobular carcinoma cells with increased metastatic potential in xenograft models.

BACKGROUND: Invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) is the second most common type of breast cancer. As few tools exist to study ILC metastasis, we isolated ILC cells with increased invasive properties to establish a spontaneously metastasising xenograft model. METHODS: MDA-MB-134VI ILC cells were placed in transwells for 7 days. Migrated cells were isolated and expanded to create the VIVA1 cell line. VIVA1 cells were compared to parental MDA-MB-134VI cells in vitro for ILC marker expression and relative proliferative and invasive ability. An intraductally injected orthotopic xenograft model was used to assess primary and metastatic tumour growth in vivo. RESULTS: Similar to MDA-MB-134VI, VIVA1 cells retained expression of oestrogen receptor (ER) and lacked expression of E-cadherin, however showed increased invasion in vitro. Following intraductal injection, VIVA1 and MDA-MB-134VI cells had similar primary tumour growth and survival kinetics. However, macrometastases were apparent in 7/10 VIVA1-injected animals. Cells from a primary orthotopic tumour (VIVA-LIG43) were isolated and showed similar proliferative rates but were also more invasive than parental cells. Upon re-injection intraductally, VIVA-LIG43 cells had more rapid tumour growth with similar metastatic incidence and location. CONCLUSIONS: We generated a new orthotopic spontaneously metastasising xenograft model for ER+ ILC amenable for the study of ILC metastasis.

Periostin gene expression in neu-positive breast cancer cells is regulated by a FGFR signaling cross talk with TGFß/PI3K/AKT pathways.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease with multiple drivers and complex regulatory networks. Periostin (Postn) is a matricellular protein involved in a plethora of cancer types and other diseases. Postn has been shown to be involved in various processes of tumor development, such as angiogenesis, invasion, cell survival and metastasis. The expression of Postn in breast cancer cells has been correlated with a more aggressive phenotype. Despite extensive research, it remains unclear how epithelial cancer cells regulate Postn expression. METHODS: Using murine tumor models and human TMAs, we have assessed the proportion of tumor samples that have acquired Postn expression in tumor cells. Using biochemical approaches and tumor cell lines derived from Neu+ murine primary tumors, we have identified major regulators of Postn gene expression in breast cancer cell lines. RESULTS: Here, we show that, while the stromal compartment typically always expresses Postn, about 50% of breast tumors acquire Postn expression in the epithelial tumor cells. Furthermore, using an in vitro model, we show a cross-regulation between FGFR, TGFß and PI3K/AKT pathways to regulate Postn expression. In HER2-positive murine breast cancer cells, we found that basic FGF can repress Postn expression through a PKC-dependent pathway, while TGFß can induce Postn expression in a SMAD-independent manner. Postn induction following the removal of the FGF-suppressive signal is dependent on PI3K/AKT signaling. CONCLUSION: Overall, these results reveal a novel regulatory mechanism and shed light on how breast tumor cells acquire Postn expression. This complex regulation is likely to be cell type and cancer specific as well as have important therapeutic implications.

The Ste20-like kinase - a Jack of all trades?

Over the past 20 years, the Ste20-like kinase (SLK; also known as STK2) has emerged as a central regulator of cytoskeletal dynamics. Reorganization of the cytoskeleton is necessary for a plethora of biological processes including apoptosis, proliferation, migration, tissue repair and signaling. Several studies have also uncovered a role for SLK in disease progression and cancer. Here, we review the recent findings in the SLK field and summarize the various roles of SLK in different animal models and discuss the biochemical mechanisms regulating SLK activity. Together, these studies have revealed multiple roles for SLK in coupling cytoskeletal dynamics to cell growth, in muscle repair and in negative-feedback loops critical for cancer progression. Furthermore, the ability of SLK to regulate some systems appears to be kinase activity independent, suggesting that it may be an important scaffold for signal transduction pathways. These various findings reveal highly complex functions and regulation patterns of SLK in development and disease, making it a potential therapeutic target.

Muscle-specific deletion of SLK/Stk2 enhances p38 activity and myogenesis in mdx mice.

Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe muscle wasting disorder characterized by the loss of dystrophin expression, muscle necrosis, inflammation and fibrosis. Ongoing muscle regeneration is impaired by persistent cytokine stress, further decreasing muscle function. Patients with DMD rarely survive beyond their early 20s, with cardiac and respiratory dysfunction being the primary cause of death. Despite an increase in our understanding of disease progression as well as promising preclinical animal models for therapeutic intervention, treatment options for muscular dystrophy remain limited and novel therapeutic targets are required. Many reports suggest that the TGFß signalling pathway is activated in dystrophic muscle and contributes to the pathology of DMD in part by impairing the differentiation of myoblasts into mature myofibers. Here, we show that in vitro knockdown of the Ste20-like kinase, SLK, can partially restore myoblast differentiation downstream of TGFß in a Smad2/3 independent manner. In an mdx model, we demonstrate that SLK is expressed at high levels in regenerating myofibers. Muscle-specific deletion of SLK reduced leukocyte infiltration, increased myogenin and utrophin expression and enhanced differentiation. This was accompanied by resistance to eccentric contraction-induced injury in slow fiber type-enriched soleus muscles. Finally, we found that these effects were partially dependent on the upregulation of p38 signalling. Collectively, these results demonstrate that SLK downregulation can restore some aspects of disease progression in DMD.

Loss of the Ste20-like kinase induces a basal/stem-like phenotype in HER2-positive breast cancers.

HER2 is overexpressed in 20-30% of all breast cancers and is associated with an invasive disease and poor clinical outcome. The Ste20-like kinase (SLK) is activated downstream of HER2/Neu and is required for efficient epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, cell cycle progression, and migration in the mammary epithelium. Here we show that loss of SLK in a murine model of HER2/Neu-positive breast cancers significantly accelerates tumor onset and decreases overall survival. Transcriptional profiling of SLK knockout HER2/Neu-derived tumor cells revealed a strong induction in the triple-negative breast cancer marker, Sox10, accompanied by an increase in mammary stem/progenitor activity. Similarly, we demonstrate that SLK and Sox10 expression are inversely correlated in patient samples, with the loss of SLK and acquisition of Sox10 marking the triple-negative subtype. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of AKT reduces SLK-null tumor growth in vivo and is rescued by ectopic Sox10 expression, suggesting that Sox10 is a critical regulator of tumor growth downstream of SLK/AKT. These findings highlight a role for SLK in negatively regulating HER2-induced mammary tumorigenesis and provide mechanistic insight into the regulation of Sox10 expression in breast cancer.

The LIM domain binding protein 1, Ldb1, has distinct roles in Neu-induced mammary tumorigenesis.

We have previously shown that the Ste20-like kinase SLK interacts directly with the LIM domain-binding protein 1, Ldb1. Ldb1 knock down in murine fibroblasts activates SLK and enhances cell migration. To investigate the effect of Ldb1 deletion in ErbB2/HER2-driven tumorigenesis, Ldb1 conditional mice were crossed into MMTV-NIC mice, expressing the Neu oncogene and Cre recombinase from a bi-cistronic transgene. Our results show that Ldb1 is expressed in the mammary epithelium and that deletion of Ldb1 does not impair mammary gland development. Although high levels of Ldb1 can be correlated with poor prognosis in HER2+ breast cancers, Ldb1 ablation does not affect Neu-induced tumor progression in transgenic mice. Surprisingly, Ldb1 deletion did not affect SLK kinase activity in primary tumors or established cell lines. Nevertheless, Ldb1-deficient tumor cells showed enhanced mesenchymal and migratory characteristics in vitro. However, Ldb1-null cells failed to colonize the lungs of wildtype female mice when injected into the tail vein. Together our results show that Ldb1 is dispensable for mammary gland development and Neu-induced tumor progression but required for dissemination at secondary sites. Furthermore, our data also highlight contrasting cell line behaviours observed from in vivo and in vitro assays.

Transforming growth factor ß-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition requires the Ste20-like kinase SLK independently of its catalytic activity.

Invasion can be stimulated in vitro using the soluble ligand transforming growth factor-ß (TGFß) to induce a process called epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) characterized by cell-cell junction breakdown and an invasive phenotype. We have previously demonstrated a role for Ste20-like kinase SLK cell migration and invasion. Here we show that SLK depletion in NMuMG mammary epithelial cells significantly impairs their TGFß-induced migration and invasion. Immunofluorescence studies show that a fraction of SLK localizes to E-cadherin-positive adherens junction and that SLK impairs the breakdown of cell-cell contacts. We find that SLK-depleted cultures express significantly lower levels of vimentin protein as well as Snai1 and E-cadherin mRNA levels following TGF-ß treatment. Surprisingly, our data show that SLK depletion does not affect the activation and nuclear translocation of Smad3. Furthermore, we show that expression of a dominant negative kinase does not impair tight junction breakdown and rescues Snai1 mRNA expression levels. Together these data suggest that SLK plays a novel role in TGFß-induced EMT, independent of Smads, in a kinase activity-independent manner.

Deletion of the Ste20-like kinase SLK in skeletal muscle results in a progressive myopathy and muscle weakness.

BACKGROUND: The Ste20-like kinase, SLK, plays an important role in cell proliferation and cytoskeletal remodeling. In fibroblasts, SLK has been shown to respond to FAK/Src signaling and regulate focal adhesion turnover through Paxillin phosphorylation. Full-length SLK has also been shown to be essential for embryonic development. In myoblasts, the overexpression of a dominant negative SLK is sufficient to block myoblast fusion. METHODS: In this study, we crossed the Myf5-Cre mouse model with our conditional SLK knockout model to delete SLK in skeletal muscle. A thorough analysis of skeletal muscle tissue was undertaken in order to identify defects in muscle development caused by the lack of SLK. Isometric force analysis was performed on adult knockout mice and compared to age-matched wild-type mice. Furthermore, cardiotoxin injections were performed followed by immunohistochemistry for myogenic markers to assess the efficiency muscle regeneration following SLK deletion. RESULTS: We show here that early deletion of SLK from the myogenic lineage does not markedly impair skeletal muscle development but delays the regenerative process. Interestingly, adult mice (~6 months) display an increase in the proportion of central nuclei and increased p38 activation. Furthermore, mice as young as 3 months old present with decreased force generation, suggesting that the loss of SLK impairs myofiber stability and function. Assessment of structural components revealed aberrant localization of focal adhesion proteins, such as FAK and paxillin. Our data show that the loss of SLK results in unstable myofibers resulting in a progressive myopathy. Additionally, the loss of SLK resulted in a delay in muscle regeneration following cardiotoxin injections. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that SLK is dispensable for muscle development and regeneration but is required for myofiber stability and optimal force generation.

Loss of periostin/OSF-2 in ErbB2/Neu-driven tumors results in androgen receptor-positive molecular apocrine-like tumors with reduced Notch1 activity.

INTRODUCTION: Periostin (Postn) is a secreted cell adhesion protein that activates signaling pathways to promote cancer cell survival, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Interestingly, Postn is frequently overexpressed in numerous human cancers, including breast, lung, colon, pancreatic, and ovarian cancer. METHODS: Using transgenic mice expressing the Neu oncogene in the mammary epithelium crossed into Postn-deficient animals, we have assessed the effect of Postn gene deletion on Neu-driven mammary tumorigenesis. RESULTS: Although Postn is exclusively expressed in the stromal fibroblasts of the mammary gland, Postn deletion does not affect mammary gland outgrowth during development or pregnancy. Furthermore, we find that loss of Postn in the mammary epithelium does not alter breast tumor initiation or growth in mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)-Neu expressing mice but results in an apocrine-like tumor phenotype. Surprisingly, we find that tumors derived from Postn-null animals express low levels of Notch protein and Hey1 mRNA but increased expression of androgen receptor (AR) and AR target genes. We show that tumor cells derived from wild-type animals do not proliferate when transplanted in a Postn-null environment but that this growth defect is rescued by the overexpression of active Notch or the AR target gene prolactin-induced protein (PIP/GCDFP-15). CONCLUSIONS: Together our data suggest that loss of Postn in an ErbB2/Neu/HER2 overexpression model results in apocrine-like tumors that activate an AR-dependent pathway. This may have important implications for the treatment of breast cancers involving the therapeutic targeting of periostin or Notch signaling.

Essential role for the SLK protein kinase in embryogenesis and placental tissue development.

BACKGROUND: Over the past decade, the Ste20-like kinase SLK, has been implicated in several signaling processes. SLK repression has been shown to impair cell cycle kinetics and inhibit FAK-mediated cell migration. Here, using a gene trapped allele, we have generated mice expressing a truncated form of the SLK kinase. RESULTS: Our results show that an SLK-LacZ fusion protein is expressed in embryonic stem cells and in embryos throughout development. We find that the SLK-LacZ fusion protein is less efficient at phosphorylating substrates resulting in reduced cell proliferation within the embryos and angiogenic defects in the placentae of the homozygous mutant animals at embryonic day (E) 12.5. This results in marked developmental defects and apoptotic lesions in the embryos by E14.5. CONCLUSIONS: Homozygotes expressing the SLK-LacZ fusion protein present with an embryonic lethal phenotype occurring between E12.5 and E14.5. Overall, we demonstrate a requirement for SLK kinase activity in the developing embryo and placenta.