Effect of coaches' interpersonal style on young athletes' individual resilience and team adherence intention: a season-long investigation.

BACKGROUND: In the sports context, coaches must be able to improve their players physically, psychologically, and socially. Hence, a fundamental part of this process is the athlete's individual resilience (IR). METHODS: Three hundred and fifteen youth team-sport players (boys: n = 283; Mage = 16.02, SD = 0.56; and girls: n = 32; Mage = 15.92, SD = 0.62) completed the measures of coach's interpersonal style, individual resilience, perceived performance, and team adherence intention (intention to remain on the same team the following year) twice (Time 1: mid-season; Time 2: end-season). Structural equation modeling was used to test the relationships between variables. RESULTS: The results showed that coach support was positively related to IR (p < 0.001) and, in turn, IR to individual (p < 0.01) and team performance (p < 0.05) at Time 1, and to individual performance (p < 0.001) and team adherence intention at Time 2 (p < 0.01). In addition, team performance at Time 2 was positively related to team adherence intention (p < 0.001). Finally, a mediating effect of IR was observed between interpersonal coaching style, individual and team performance, and team adherence intention. CONCLUSIONS: These results show the importance of a supportive interpersonal coaching style to foster athletes' levels of resilience, which could have positive consequences in performance (individual and team) and team adherence intention.

How class cohesion and teachers' relatedness supportive/thwarting style relate to students' relatedness, motivation, and positive and negative outcomes in physical education.

The main goal of this study was to examine the links between class cohesion and teachers' relatedness teaching style with students' relatedness needs, motivation, and positive and negative outcomes in Physical Education. A total of 1294 students 10-18 years old (M = 14.40, SD = 1.99), 613 males (M = 14.48, SD = 1.95) and 681 females (M = 14.33, SD = 2.02), agreed to participate. They were enrolled in 88 classes belonging to 13 different primary and secondary schools in southwestern Spain. The study followed a correlational research design. Results of the multilevel path model showed a positive relationship between teachers' relatedness support and class cohesion and behavioral and emotional engagement through relatedness need satisfaction and autonomous and controlled motivation. Results also showed a positive relationship between teachers' relatedness thwarting and disruptive behaviors and problematic relationships through relatedness need frustration and amotivation. In conclusion, teachers' relatedness behaviors and class cohesion can significantly impact the students' relatedness and motivation, which in turn will affect their engagement and behaviors. A whole cascade of consequences begins with the way teachers teach and the cohesion generated in class. These first steps cannot be overlooked.

Teachers' Verbal and Nonverbal Communication, Students' Psychological Needs, and Positive and Negative Outcomes in Physical Education.

Focused on physical education (PE), this study examined the association between teachers' communication and students' psychological needs, enjoyment/boredom, PE usefulness, and students' grade perception. Participants were 1,000 students (572 girls; Mage = 14.58 ± 0.65) from 29 Spanish secondary schools. A path model including variables measured at three times was tested: teachers' verbal/nonverbal communication (Time 1), needs satisfaction/frustration (Time 2), and PE outcomes (Time 3). Verbal communication positively predicted needs satisfaction, which, in turn, positively predicted enjoyment, PE usefulness, and students' grade perception and negatively predicted boredom. Verbal communication negatively predicted needs frustration, which was a positive predictor of boredom. Multigroup analysis showed that gender did not moderate the associations in the path model, whereas mediating effects were found between teachers' communication and consequences via students' psychological needs. Teachers should improve their communicative capacities to satisfy students' psychological needs and promote positive PE  outcomes.

Effects of out-of-school physical activity interventions based on self-determination theory in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the effects of out-of-school physical activity (PA) interventions, based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), on basic psychological needs (BPN), motivation toward PA, and PA levels in youths. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analyses. METHOD: We searched for intervention studies examining the effects of PA interventions based on SDT implemented outside the school published in English and Spanish in six electronic databases up to January 2022. RESULTS: Outcomes of interest were BPN, motivation, and PA levels. In total, nine studies were included in this review. Seven individual meta-analyses were conducted for each variable, revealing nonsignificant clustered effects for the outcomes autonomy satisfaction (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.55]), competence satisfaction (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.28, 0.32]), relatedness satisfaction (g = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.43, 0.68]), autonomous motivation (g = 0.15, 95% CI [-0.38, 0.67]), controlled motivation (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.32, 0.55]), amotivation (g = -0.36, 95% CI [-0.88, 0.16]), and PA behavior (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.08, 0.12]). CONCLUSION: Meta-analyses suggest that out-of-school PA interventions based on SDT are not effective in increasing levels of needs satisfaction, types of motivation, and PA levels.

Is coaches' perceived team performance associated with their intentions to persist in coaching? The mediating role of coaches' psychological needs and motivation.

This study examined the association between team performance perceived by coaches, coaches' basic psychological needs, motivation, and their intentions to persist in coaching. Participants were 719 coaches (80 females, M = 33.49 years, SD = 10.27, range = 18-67) of different team sports (soccer = 514; basketball = 165; volleyball = 23; handball = 14; and hockey = 3) who completed questionnaire measures at the end of the season. Structural equation modelling adjusted for sex, coaches' experience, age categories, and type of sport revealed that coaches' perceptions of team performance were positively related to their need satisfaction and negatively to their need frustration. In turn, coaches' need satisfaction was positively associated with their autonomous motivation, whereas their need frustration was positively related to controlled motivation and amotivation. Finally, coaches' autonomous motivation was a positive predictor of their intentions to persist, and conversely, coaches' amotivation was a negative predictor of their intentions to persist. We found a significant positive and indirect effect between team performance perceived by coaches and their intention to persist through their need satisfaction and autonomous motivation. These findings represent the first quantitative insight into how coach-perceived team performance could function as a new antecedent relevant to coaches' motivational processes and persistence.

Do sport teams with greater team resilience perceive higher performance at the end of the season? A multilevel analysis.

A team's ability to respond positively to adversities, problems, and obstacles during their season is an essential part of success in collective sports. Grounded in team resilience theory and using a multilevel analytical approach, this study examined the relationship of the characteristics of resilience and vulnerability under pressure with perceived individual and team performance. Participants were 676 soccer players (530 males and 146 females) aged 15-42 years (M = 21.40, SD = 5.38), who played on 64 senior and under-18 soccer teams of several national leagues in Spain. In the final month of the season, factors related to team resilience and individual and team performance were analyzed. We estimated multilevel models by including perceived individual and team performance as dependent variables. Characteristics of resilience and vulnerability under pressure were considered as fixed and random effects (i.e., individual- and team-level intercepts and slopes). At the individual level, results showed that characteristics of resilience were positively associated with subjective individual and team performance, whereas vulnerability under pressure was negatively related to perceived team (but not individual) performance. At the team level, only characteristics of resilience positively predicted team performance. These findings suggest that more resilient teams report more successful performance from an individual and team perspective, whereas teams that are more vulnerable under pressure report poorer team performance. Taken together, the study underscores the importance of practitioners to develop strategies that improve their teams' resilience, given that team resilience helps to achieve positive subjective individual and team outcomes.

Does coaches' satisfaction with the team determine their interpersonal style? The mediating role of basic psychological needs.

The purpose of the present study was to examine how coaches' satisfaction with the team could be related to their reported interpersonal style towards young athletes, and to analyze the mediating role of basic psychological needs (i.e. need satisfaction and need frustration) in this relationship. Participants were 352 coaches (16-67 years old; Mage = 32.88, SD = 11.14) from 48 clubs, who had between 1 and 52 years of training experience (M = 23.23, SD = 15.02). Structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to test the relationships between variables. Results showed that satisfaction with the team is positively related to coaches' need satisfaction, and negatively to their need frustration. Need satisfaction positively predicted coaches' need-supportive style, and need frustration predicted their need-thwarting style. Regarding indirect effects, need satisfaction positively mediated the relationship between coaches' satisfaction with the team and their need-supportive style, and need frustration negatively mediated the relationship between coaches' satisfaction with the team and their need-thwarting style. These findings are a first step to highlight satisfaction with the team as an antecedent of coaches' self-reported need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviours towards athletes, and the mediating role of coaches' psychological needs (need satisfaction and need frustration) in this relationship.HighlightsWe examined the satisfaction of the team as antecedent of coaches' interpersonal style.We tested the mediating role of coaches' psychological needs in this relationship.Satisfaction with the team was positively related to need-supportive style.Satisfaction with the team was negatively associated with need-thwarting behaviors.Coaches' psychological needs mediated the relationship between team satisfaction and their interpersonal style.

The Relationship between Students' Physical Self-Concept and Their Physical Activity Levels and Sedentary Behavior: The Role of Students' Motivation.

This study aimed to analyze the association between specific dimension (i.e., fitness, appearance, physical competence, physical strength, and self-esteem) of students' physical self-concept (PSC) and their physical activity (PA) levels (i.e., intentions to be physically active and out-of-school PA levels perceived by students) and sedentary behavior (SB) (i.e., total sitting and screen time perceived by students). We also tested the role of students' motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and amotivation) towards PA in these relationships. A total of 1998 Spanish male (n = 1003) and female (n = 995) secondary students, aged between 13 and 17 years (M = 14.92, SD = 0.87) from 22 schools, enrolled in third grade (n = 1081) and fourth grade (n = 917), completed the self-reported questionnaires. Five independent structural equation modeling (SEM) adjusted by students' sex was used to examine the association between specific dimension of students' PSC (i.e., fitness, appearance, physical competence, physical strength, and self-esteem) and self-reported PA and SB variables, and to test the role of students' motivation in these relationships. Overall, most of students' PSC dimension positively predicted students' PA outcomes, and were negatively associated with SB. In addition, most of students' PSC dimension were positively associated with intrinsic motivation, and negatively predicted amotivation. In turn, intrinsic motivation was a positive predictor of PA outcomes, and a negative predictor of SB, whereas amotivation was a negative predictor of PA outcomes and sitting time, and a positive predictor of screen time. Finally, from PSC dimensions, sex as a covariate was a positive predictor of intrinsic motivation and PA outcomes, and was a negative predictor of amotivation and sitting time. These findings suggest the importance of the specific dimensions of PSC perceived by adolescents on their motivational processes, and in turn, on their PA and SB outcomes.

Is Perceived Athlete Leadership Quality Related to Inside Sacrifice and Perceived Performance in Team Sports? The Mediating Role of Team Identification.

The study aimed to analyze the relationship between athletes' perceptions of athlete leadership quality, team identification, inside sacrifice, and performance. A total of 299 players of collective sports (soccer, beach soccer, basketball, volleyball; M age 19.05, SD = 5.10) participated through a cross-sectional design survey. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results highlight the positive relationships between perceived quality of athlete leaders, inside sacrifice, and perceived performance, and between inside sacrifice and perceived performance. Furthermore, inside sacrifice perceived by the athletes was a positive mediator between perceived athlete leadership quality and perceived performance. Also, team identification was a positive mediator in the association between inside sacrifice and perceived performance. These findings extend knowledge about the athlete leadership quality context. These results can also be useful for further research and implications in team sports' performance, as coaches and sports psychologists would have more information about their teams' perceptions of leadership quality to achieve positive outcomes in players' inside sacrifice and performance. The findings also highlight the importance of developing team identification to improve the relationships between perceived athlete leadership quality, inside sacrifice, and perceived performance.

School-based Physical Activity Interventions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review.

Background: The aim of this systematic review was to examinemotivational interventions based on physical activity as precursor of psychosocial benefits inside of the scholar context. Method: studies were identified in seven databases (Web of Science, Sport Discuss, Scopus, Eric, Pubmed, Psycinfo and Google Scholar). The search process was from June 2011 to September 2019. A total of 41 articles met the inclusion criteria. Results: 23 studies showed psychological effects after intervention and also 10 studies showed psychosocial effect after the intervention. The rest of the studies, although they presented changes, did not become significant.Conclusions: this systematic review showed the importance of motivational processes for the performance of physical activity and sport as a precursor of psychosocial changesand highlights the importance of strategies and the temporal nature of studies to maintain significant changes over time.Likewise, the study shows the future trend of motivational interventions, highlighting the female gender as participants of special interest, and changing the methodology through web-based interventions and active breaks or mental breaks during traditional subject classes.

Revisión sistemática sobre la efectividad de los programas de actividad física para reducir el sobrepeso y la obesidad en los jóvenes en edad escolar / Systematic review about the effectiveness of physical activity programs to reduce overweight and obesity in school-age youth / Revisão sistemática da eficácia de programas de atividade física para reduzir sobrepeso e obesidade em jovens em idade escolar

El propósito del presente trabajo fue conocer la efectividad de los programas de intervención destinados a disminuir el sobrepeso y la obesidad en los jóvenes. Se seleccionaron 266 publicaciones obtenidas mediante la búsqueda en bases de datos: Pubmed (n = 83), Science Direct (n = 2091), Scopus (n = 100) y Web of Science (n = 107). Tras la lectura del resumen y/o texto completo, los estudios seleccionados se redujeron a 21. La edad de los participantes osciló entre los 6 y 16 años. Las conclusiones del estudio fueron que los programas más efectivos fueron aquellos que realizaron dos sesiones semanales de actividad física, con una duración de 45 minutos, a una intensidad moderada y vigorosa

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of intervention programs aimed to reduce overweight and obesity in young people. A total of 266 publications were selected, obtained by searching the databases: Pubmed (n = 83), Science Direct (n = 2091), Scopus (n = 100) and Web of Science (n = 107). After reading the abstract and full text, the selected studies were reduced 21. The age of the participants ranged from 6 to 16 years. The conclusions of the study were that the most effective programs were those that carried out two weekly sessions of physical activity, lasting 45 minutes, at a moderate and vigorous intensity

O objetivo deste trabalho foi conhecer a eficácia dos programas de intervenção que visam reduzir o excesso de peso e a obesidade em jovens. Foram selecionadas 266 publicações, obtidas nas bases de dados: Pubmed (n = 83), Science Direct (n = 2091), Scopus (n = 100) e Web of Science (n = 107). Após a leitura do resumo e do texto completo, os estudos selecionados foram reduzidos a 21. A idade dos participantes variou de 6 a 16 anos. As conclusões do estudo foram de que os programas mais eficazes foram aqueles que realizavam duas sessões semanais de atividade física, com uma duração de 45 minutos, com intensidade moderada e vigorosa

Physical Activity as a Regulatory Variable between Adolescents' Motivational Processes and Satisfaction with Life.

Framed within Self-Determination Theory, the objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs, levels of motivation, physical activity, and satisfaction with life. METHODS: A total of 487 students participated, comprising males (n = 262) and females (n = 225), aged between 14 and 16 years (M = 15.02; SD = 0.87), from different secondary schools. RESULTS: A regression analysis was carried out (structural equation modeling) that revealed the existence of two theoretical lines, one positive and the other negative, where the satisfaction of basic psychological needs was positively related to autonomous motivation and physical activity, which predicted satisfaction with life. On the other hand, the frustration of basic psychological needs was positively related to controlled motivation, whereas controlled motivation (introjected regulation and extrinsic regulation) was inversely associated with physical activity and satisfaction with life. CONCLUSION: The results show the importance of motivational processes in physical activity, and the effects of physical activity on satisfaction with life in adolescents who spend more time engaged in physical activity.

How many leaders does it take to lead a sports team? The relationship between the number of leaders and the effectiveness of professional sports teams.

This study aimed to analyze the number of task, social and external athlete leaders within sports teams, and to examine the effectiveness of different leadership structures in male and female teams. The participants were 317 male and 214 female soccer players belonging to 18 teams playing in the third highest male division and to 13 teams playing in the highest female division in Spain, respectively. First, we identified the leadership structure in each team (i.e., having zero, one, two or three leaders); second, we grouped the teams according to these leadership structures; and third, MANOVA was used to compare different leadership groups in terms of their effectiveness. The results demonstrated that: (a) the most common structure within the teams was to have one task leader, one social leader, and two external leaders; (b) shared leadership across and within leadership roles was seen as the most effective leadership structure for male and female teams; and (c) male teams showed more benefits when having more task and external leaders, while female teams experienced more benefits when having more task and social leaders on the team. Based on these findings, coaches can optimize their team's functioning by implementing a structure of shared leadership within their teams, both across and within the different leadership roles.

Motivation and Physical Activity: Differences Between High School and University Students in Spain.

Grounded in self-determination theory, this study aimed first to examine differences in motivation for physical activity (PA) and habitual PA levels between adolescents and university students in Spain. The second aim was to examine differences in the degree of association between their intrinsic motivation and amotivation for PA and habitual PA levels in both samples. We studied 2,699 students (1,833 high school and 866 university; mean age = 18.83, standard deviation = 4.12 years) who completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form and two dimensions of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire. High school students, relative to university students, self-reported significantly higher intrinsic motivation and higher PA levels for each type of PA intensity (i.e., walk, moderate, and vigorous); high school students also self-reported significantly lower amotivation than university students. The degree of association between the total metabolic equivalents of task and intrinsic motivation was higher among high school (versus) university students. This study shows the need to design intervention strategies to enhance PA levels and intrinsic motivation in university students.

Effects of an Interpersonal Style Intervention for Coaches on Young Soccer Players' Motivational Processes.

The main goal of the study was to assess the effects of an intervention programme developed with soccer coaches, based on promoting strategies to optimise the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs of athletes. Eight soccer coaches, aged between 19 and 50 years (M = 32.5; SD = 14.34), participated in the study. They were selected intentionally (without academic or federative training) and divided equally into a control and an experimental group by random peer selection. Also, 109 soccer players, aged between 11 and 15 years (M = 13.78; SD = 1.38), divided into a control group (CG; n = 56) and an experimental group (EG; n = 53), participated in the experiment. The training programme (12 hours) was aimed to develop methodological and motivational strategies to promote autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction among the players. The results showed that the participants in the EG decreased competence and relatedness control, while significantly increased (post-intervention) competence and relatedness needs satisfaction. Moreover, values for the EG did not decrease for autonomy, competence frustration and amotivation, while they increased for the sport commitment. Also, intrinsic motivation decreased in both groups (greater decrease in the CG). In conclusion, we can affirm the effectiveness of the training programme to create an environment of "bright side" motivation, and reduce thwarting styles, needs frustration and low self-determination levels.