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Diagnosing and treating people with bacteriologically-negative but radiologically-apparent tuberculosis (TB) may contribute to more effective TB care and reduce transmission. However, optimal treatment approaches for this group are unknown. It is important to understand peoples' preferences of treatment options for effective programmatic implementation of people-centred treatment approaches. We designed and implemented a discrete choice experiment (DCE) to solicit treatment preferences among adults (≥18 years) with TB symptoms attending a primary health clinic in Blantyre, Malawi. Treatment attributes included in the DCE were as follows: duration of treatment; number of tablets per dose; reduction in the risk of being unwell with TB disease; likelihood of infecting others; adverse effects from the treatment; frequency of follow up; and the annual travel cost to access care. Quantitative choice modelling with multinomial logit models estimated through frequentist and Bayesian approaches investigated preferences for the management of bacteriologically-negative, but radiographically-apparent TB. 128 participants were recruited (57% male, 43.8% HIV-positive, 8.6% previously treated for TB). Participants preferred to take any treatment compared to not taking treatment (odds ratio [OR] 5.78; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.40, 13.90). Treatments that reduced the relative risk of developing TB disease by 80% were preferred (OR: 2.97; 95% CI: 2.09, 4.21) compared to treatments that lead to a lower reduction in risk of 50%. However, there was no evidence for treatments that are 95% effective being preferred over those that are 80% effective. Participants strongly favoured the treatments that could completely stop transmission (OR: 7.87, 95% CI: 5.71, 10.84), and prioritised avoiding side effects (OR: 0.19, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.29). There was no evidence of an interaction between perceived TB disease risk and treatment preferences. In summary, participants were primarily concerned with the effectiveness of TB treatments and strongly preferred treatments that removed the risk of onward transmission. Person-centred approaches of preferences for treatment should be considered when designing new treatment strategies. Understanding treatment preferences will ensure that any recommended treatment for probable early TB disease is well accepted and utilized by the public.
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BACKGROUND: Structural, interpersonal and individual level factors can present barriers for HIV prevention behaviour among people at high risk of HIV acquisition, including women who sell sex. In this paper we document the contexts in which women selling sex in Kampala meet and provide services to their clients. METHODS: We collected qualitative data using semi-structured interviews. Women were eligible to participate if they were 18 years or older, self-identified as sex workers or offered sex for money and spoke Luganda or English. Ten women who met clients in venues and outdoor locations were selected randomly from a clinic for women at high risk of HIV acquisition. Ten other women who met clients online were recruited using snowball sampling. Interviews included demographic data, and themes included reasons for joining and leaving sex work, work locations, nature of relationships with clients and peers, interaction with authorities, regulations on sex work, and reported stigma. We conducted interviews over three months. Data were analysed thematically using a framework analysis approach. The coding framework was based on structural factors identified from literature, but also modified inductively with themes arising from the interviews. RESULTS: Women met clients in physical and virtual spaces. Physical spaces included venues and outdoor locations, and virtual spaces were online platforms like social media applications and websites. Of the 20 women included, 12 used online platforms to meet clients. Generally, women from the clinic sample were less educated and predominantly unmarried, while those from the snowball sample had more education, had professional jobs, or were university students. Women from both samples reported experiences of stigma, violence from clients and authorities, and challenges accessing health care services due to the illegality of sex work. Even though all participants worked in settings where sex work was illegal and consequently endured harsh treatment, those from the snowball sample faced additional threats of cybersecurity attacks, extortion from clients, and high levels of violence from clients. CONCLUSIONS: To reduce risk of HIV acquisition among women who sell sex, researchers and implementers should consider these differences in contexts, challenges, and risks to design innovative interventions and programs that reach and include all women.
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HIV Infections , Qualitative Research , Sex Work , Sex Workers , Social Stigma , Humans , Female , Uganda , Sex Workers/psychology , Sex Workers/statistics & numerical data , Adult , HIV Infections/prevention & control , HIV Infections/psychology , Sex Work/psychology , Sex Work/statistics & numerical data , Young AdultABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Several sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) modulators are available in the US for treating relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis (RMS). Given that these S1PR modulators have similar efficacy and safety, patients may consider the clinical management characteristics of the S1PR modulators when deciding among treatments. However, none of the S1PR modulators is clearly superior in every aspect of clinical management, and for some treatments, clinical management varies based on a patient's comorbid health conditions (e.g., heart conditions [HC]). OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine which S1PR modulator patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) would prefer based on clinical management considerations, and to estimate how different clinical management considerations might drive these preferences. Preferences were explored separately for patients with and without comorbid HC. METHODS: A multicriteria decision analysis was conducted on S1PR modulators approved to treat RMS: fingolimod, ozanimod, siponimod, and ponesimod. Clinical management preferences of patients with RRMS were elicited in a discrete choice experiment (DCE) in which participants repeatedly chose between hypothetical S1PR modulator profiles based on their clinical management attributes. Attributes included first-dose observations, genotyping, liver function tests, eye examinations, drug-drug interactions, interactions with antidepressants, interactions with foods high in tyramine, and immune system recovery time. Preferences were estimated separately for patients with HC and without HC (noHC). Marginal utilities were calculated from the DCE data for each attribute and level using a mixed logit model. In the multicriteria decision analysis, partial value scores were created by applying the marginal utilities for each attribute and level to the real-world profiles of S1PR modulators. Partial value scores were summed to determine an overall clinical management value score for each S1PR modulator. RESULTS: Four hundred patients with RRMS completed the DCE. Ponesimod had the highest overall value score for patients both without (n = 341) and with (n = 59) HC (noHC: 5.1; HC: 4.0), followed by siponimod (noHC: 4.9; HC: 3.3), fingolimod (noHC: 3.4; HC: 2.8), and ozanimod (noHC: 0.9; HC: 0.8). Overall, immune system recovery time contributed the highest partial value scores (noHC: up to 1.9 points; HC: up to 1.2 points), followed by the number of drug-drug interactions (noHC: up to 1.2 points; HC: up to 1.7 points). CONCLUSIONS: When considering the clinical management of S1PR modulators, the average patient with RRMS is expected to choose a treatment with shorter immune system recovery time and fewer interactions with other drugs. Patients both with and without heart conditions are likely to prefer the clinical management profile of ponesimod over those of siponimod, fingolimod, and ozanimod. This information can help inform recommendations for treating RRMS and facilitate shared decision making between patients and their doctors.
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BACKGROUND: Kenya aims to achieve universal health coverage (UHC) by 2030 and has selected the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) as the 'vehicle' to drive the UHC agenda. While there is some progress in moving the country towards UHC, the availability and accessibility to NHIF-contracted facilities may be a barrier to equitable access to care. We estimated the spatial access to NHIF-contracted facilities in Kenya to provide information to advance the UHC agenda in Kenya. METHODS: We merged NHIF-contracted facility data to the geocoded inventory of health facilities in Kenya to assign facility geospatial locations. We combined this database with covariates data including road network, elevation, land use, and travel barriers. We estimated the proportion of the population living within 60- and 120-minute travel time to an NHIF-contracted facility at a 1-x1-kilometer spatial resolution nationally and at county levels using the WHO AccessMod tool. RESULTS: We included a total of 3,858 NHIF-contracted facilities. Nationally, 81.4% and 89.6% of the population lived within 60- and 120-minute travel time to an NHIF-contracted facility respectively. At the county level, the proportion of the population living within 1-hour of travel time to an NHIF-contracted facility ranged from as low as 28.1% in Wajir county to 100% in Nyamira and Kisii counties. Overall, only four counties (Kiambu, Kisii, Nairobi and Nyamira) had met the target of having 100% of their population living within 1-hour (60 min) travel time to an NHIF-contracted facility. On average, it takes 209, 210 and 216 min to travel to an NHIF-contracted facility, outpatient and inpatient facilities respectively. At the county level, travel time to an NHIF-contracted facility ranged from 10 min in Vihiga County to 333 min in Garissa. CONCLUSION: Our study offers evidence of the spatial access estimates to NHIF-contracted facilities in Kenya that can inform contracting decisions by the social health insurer, especially focussing on marginalised counties where more facilities need to be contracted. Besides, this evidence will be crucial as the country gears towards accelerating progress towards achieving UHC using social health insurance as the strategy to drive the UHC agenda in Kenya.
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Financial Management , National Health Programs , Humans , Kenya , Insurance, Health , Health FacilitiesABSTRACT
This paper focuses on survey administration and data collection methods employed for stated-preference studies in health applications. First, it describes different types of survey administration methods, encompassing web-based surveys, face-to-face (in-person) surveys, and mail surveys. Second, the concept of sampling frames is introduced, clarifying distinctions between the target population and survey frame population. The discussion then extends to different types of sampling methods, such as probability and non-probability sampling, along with an evaluation of potential issues associated with different sampling methods within the context of health preference research. Third, the paper provides information about different recruitment methods, including web-surveys, leveraging patient groups, and in-clinic recruitment. Fourth, a crucial aspect addressed is the calculation of response rate, with insights into determining an adequate response rate and strategies to improve response rates in stated-preference surveys. Lastly, the paper concludes by discussing data management plans and suggesting insights for future research in this field. In summary, this paper examines the nuanced aspects of survey administration and data collection methods in stated-preference studies, offering valuable guidance for researchers and practitioners in the health domain.
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OBJECTIVES: The economic consequences of untreated surgical disease are potentially large. The aim of this study was to estimate the economic burden associated with unmet surgical needs in Liberia. DESIGN: A nationwide enumeration of surgical procedures and providers was conducted in Liberia in 2018. We estimated the number of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) saved by operative activities and converted these into economic losses averted using gross national income per capita and value of a statistical life (VSL) approaches. The total, the met and the unmet needs for surgery were determined, and economic losses caused by unmet surgical needs were estimated. Finally, we valued the economic losses avoided by various surgical provider groups. RESULTS: A total of 55 890 DALYs were averted by surgical activities in 2018; these activities prevented an economic loss of between US$35 and US$141 million. About half of these values were generated by the non-specialist physician workforce. Furthermore, a non-specialist physician working a full-time position for 1 year prevented an economic loss of US$717 069 using the VSL approach, while a specialist resident and a certified specialist saved US$726 606 and US$698 877, respectively. The burden of unmet surgical need was associated with productivity losses of between US$388 million and US$1.6 billion; these losses equate to 11% and 46% of the annual gross domestic product for Liberia. CONCLUSION: The economic burden of untreated surgical disease is large in Liberia. There is a need to strengthen the surgical system to reduce ongoing economic losses; a framework where specialist and non-specialist physicians collaborate may result in better economic return than a narrower focus on training specialists alone.
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Certification , Financial Stress , Humans , Retrospective Studies , Liberia/epidemiology , Gross Domestic ProductABSTRACT
We measure the adoption of management practices in over 220 private for-profit and non-profit health facilities in 64 districts across Tanzania and link these data to process quality-of-care metrics, assessed using undercover standardised patients and clinical observations. We find that better managed health facilities are more likely to provide correct treatment in accordance with national treatment guidelines, adhere to a checklist of essential questions and examinations, and comply with infection prevention and control practices. Moving from the 10th to the 90th percentile in the management practice score is associated with a 48% increase in correct treatment. We then leverage a large-scale field experiment of an internationally recognised management support intervention in which health facilities are assessed against comprehensive standards, given an individually tailored quality improvement plan and supported through training and mentoring visits. We find zero to small effects on management scores, suggesting that improving management practices in this setting may be challenging.
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BACKGROUND: India had an estimated 2.9 million tuberculosis cases and 506 thousand deaths in 2021. Novel vaccines effective in adolescents and adults could reduce this burden. M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination have recently completed phase IIb trials and estimates of their population-level impact are needed. We estimated the potential health and economic impact of M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination in India and investigated the impact of variation in vaccine characteristics and delivery strategies. METHODS: We developed an age-stratified compartmental tuberculosis transmission model for India calibrated to country-specific epidemiology. We projected baseline epidemiology to 2050 assuming no-new-vaccine introduction, and M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination scenarios over 2025-2050 exploring uncertainty in product characteristics (vaccine efficacy, mechanism of effect, infection status required for vaccine efficacy, duration of protection) and implementation (achieved vaccine coverage and ages targeted). We estimated reductions in tuberculosis cases and deaths by each scenario compared to the no-new-vaccine baseline, as well as costs and cost-effectiveness from health-system and societal perspectives. RESULTS: M72/AS01E scenarios were predicted to avert 40% more tuberculosis cases and deaths by 2050 compared to BCG-revaccination scenarios. Cost-effectiveness ratios for M72/AS01E vaccines were around seven times higher than BCG-revaccination, but nearly all scenarios were cost-effective. The estimated average incremental cost was US$190 million for M72/AS01E and US$23 million for BCG-revaccination per year. Sources of uncertainty included whether M72/AS01E was efficacious in uninfected individuals at vaccination, and if BCG-revaccination could prevent disease. CONCLUSIONS: M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination could be impactful and cost-effective in India. However, there is great uncertainty in impact, especially given the unknowns surrounding the mechanism of effect and infection status required for vaccine efficacy. Greater investment in vaccine development and delivery is needed to resolve these unknowns in vaccine product characteristics.
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Tuberculosis Vaccines , Tuberculosis , Adult , Humans , Adolescent , BCG Vaccine , Immunization, Secondary , Tuberculosis/epidemiology , Tuberculosis/prevention & control , Vaccination , India/epidemiologyABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To assess National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) members' level of understanding, experiences, and factors influencing their choice of NHIF-contracted outpatient facilities in Kenya. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional qualitative study with NHIF members in two purposefully selected counties (Nyeri and Makueni counties) in Kenya. We collected data through 15 focus group discussions with NHIF members. Data were analysed using a framework analysis approach. RESULTS: Urban-based NHIF members had a good understanding of the NHIF-contracted outpatient facility selection process and the approaches for choosing and changing providers, unlike their rural counterparts. While NHIF members were required to choose a provider before accessing care, the number of available alternative facilities was perceived to be inadequate. Finally, NHIF members identified seven factors they considered important when choosing an NHIF-contracted outpatient provider. Of these factors, the availability of drugs, distance from the household to the facility and waiting time at the facility until consultation were considered the most important. CONCLUSION: There is a need for the NHIF to prioritise awareness-raising approaches tailored to rural settings. Further, there is a need for the NHIF to contract more providers to both spur competition among providers and provide alternatives for members to choose from. Besides, NHIF members revealed the important factors they consider when selecting outpatient facilities. Consequently, NHIF should leverage the preferred factors when contracting healthcare providers. Similarly, healthcare providers should enhance the availability of drugs, reduce waiting times whilst improving their staff's attitudes which would improve user satisfaction and the quality of care provided.
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Financial Management , Outpatients , Humans , Kenya , Cross-Sectional Studies , National Health Programs , Health Facilities , Insurance, HealthABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: One in two patients developing tuberculosis (TB) in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) faces catastrophic household costs. We assessed the potential financial risk protection from introducing novel TB vaccines, and how health and economic benefits would be distributed across income quintiles. METHODS: We modelled the impact of introducing TB vaccines meeting the World Health Organization preferred product characteristics in 105 LMICs. For each country, we assessed the distribution of health gains, patient costs and household financial vulnerability following introduction of an infant vaccine and separately for an adolescent/adult vaccine, compared with a 'no-new-vaccine' counterfactual. Patient-incurred direct and indirect costs of TB disease exceeding 20% of annual household income were defined as catastrophic. RESULTS: Over 2028-2050, the health gains resulting from vaccine introduction were greatest in lower income quintiles, with the poorest 2 quintiles in each country accounting for 56% of total LMIC TB cases averted. Over this period, the infant vaccine was estimated to avert US$5.9 (95% uncertainty interval: US$5.3-6.5) billion in patient-incurred total costs, and the adolescent/adult vaccine was estimated to avert US$38.9 (US$36.6-41.5) billion. Additionally, 3.7 (3.3-4.1) million fewer households were projected to face catastrophic costs with the infant vaccine and 22.9 (21.4-24.5) million with the adolescent/adult vaccine, with 66% of gains accruing in the poorest 2 income quintiles. CONCLUSION: Under a range of assumptions, introducing novel TB vaccines would reduce income-based inequalities in the health and household economic outcomes of TB in LMICs.
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Health Equity , Tuberculosis Vaccines , Adolescent , Adult , Infant , Humans , Developing Countries , Income , PovertyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Vaccination is a key tool against COVID-19. However, in many settings it is not clear how acceptable COVID-19 vaccination is among the general population, or how hesitancy correlates with risk of disease acquisition. In this study we conducted a nationally representative survey in Pakistan to measure vaccination perceptions and social contacts in the context of COVID-19 control measures and vaccination programmes. METHODS: We conducted a vaccine perception and social contact survey with 3,658 respondents across five provinces in Pakistan, between 31 May and 29 June 2021. Respondents were asked a series of vaccine perceptions questions, to report all direct physical and non-physical contacts made the previous day, and a number of other questions regarding the social and economic impact of COVID-19 and control measures. We examined variation in perceptions and contact patterns by geographic and demographic factors. We describe knowledge, experiences and perceived risks of COVID-19. We explored variation in contact patterns by individual characteristics and vaccine hesitancy, and compared to patterns from non-pandemic periods. RESULTS: Self-reported adherence to self-isolation guidelines was poor, and 51% of respondents did not know where to access a COVID-19 test. Although 48.1% of participants agreed that they would get a vaccine if offered, vaccine hesitancy was higher than in previous surveys, and greatest in Sindh and Baluchistan provinces and among respondents of lower socioeconomic status. Participants reported a median of 5 contacts the previous day (IQR: 3-5, mean 14.0, 95%CI: 13.2, 14.9). There were no substantial differences in the number of contacts reported by individual characteristics, but contacts varied substantially among respondents reporting more or less vaccine hesitancy. Contacts were highly assortative, particularly outside the household where 97% of men's contacts were with other men. We estimate that social contacts were 9% lower than before the COVID-19 pandemic. CONCLUSIONS: Although the perceived risk of COVID-19 in Pakistan is low in the general population, around half of participants in this survey indicated they would get vaccinated if offered. Vaccine impact studies which do not account for correlation between social contacts and vaccine hesitancy may incorrectly estimate the impact of vaccines, for example, if unvaccinated people have more contacts.
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COVID-19 Vaccines , COVID-19 , Male , Humans , COVID-19/epidemiology , COVID-19/prevention & control , Cross-Sectional Studies , Pakistan/epidemiology , Pandemics , VaccinationABSTRACT
Violence against women and girls (VAWG) is a human rights violation with substantial health-related consequences. Interventions to prevent VAWG, often implemented at the community level by volunteers, have been proven effective and cost-effective. One such intervention is the Rural Response System in Ghana, a volunteer-run program which hires community based action teams (COMBATs) to sensitise the community about VAWG and to provide counselling services in rural areas. To increase programmatic impact and maximise the retention of these volunteers, it is important to understand their preferences for incentives. We conducted a discrete choice experiment (DCE) among 107 COMBAT volunteers, in two Ghanaian districts in 2018, to examine their stated preferences for financial and non-financial incentives that could be offered in their roles. Each respondent answered 12 choice tasks, and each task comprised four hypothetical volunteering positions. The first three positions included different levels of five role attributes. The fourth option was to cease volunteering as a COMBAT volunteer (opt-out). We found that, overall, COMBAT volunteers cared most for receiving training in volunteering skills and three-monthly supervisions. These results were consistent between multinomial logit, and mixed multinomial logit models. A three-class latent class model fitted our data best, identifying subgroups of COMBAT workers with distinct preferences for incentives: The younger 'go getters'; older 'veterans', and the 'balanced bunch' encompassing the majority of the sample. The opt-out was chosen only 4 (0.3%) times. Only one other study quantitatively examined the preferences for incentives of VAWG-prevention volunteers using a DCE (Kasteng et al., 2016). Understanding preferences and how they vary between sub-groups can be leveraged by programme managers to improve volunteer motivation and retention. As effective VAWG-prevention programmes are scaled up from small pilots to the national level, data on volunteer preferences may be useful in improving volunteer retention.
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Personnel Selection , Rural Health Services , Humans , Female , Ghana , Motivation , VolunteersABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis remains a leading infectious cause of death in resource-limited settings. Effective treatment is the cornerstone of tuberculosis control, reducing mortality, recurrence and transmission. Supporting treatment adherence through facility-based observations of medication taking can be costly to providers and patients. Digital adherence technologies (DATs) may facilitate treatment monitoring and differentiated care. The ASCENT-Ethiopia study is a three-arm cluster randomised trial assessing two DATs with differentiated care for supporting tuberculosis treatment adherence in Ethiopia. This study is part of the ASCENT consortium, assessing DATs in South Africa, the Philippines, Ukraine, Tanzania and Ethiopia. The aim of this study is to determine the costs, cost-effectiveness and equity impact of implementing DATs in Ethiopia. METHODS AND DESIGN: A total of 78 health facilities have been randomised (1:1:1) into one of two intervention arms or a standard-of-care arm. Approximately 50 participants from each health facility will be enrolled on the trial. Participants in facilities randomised to the intervention arms are offered a DAT linked to the ASCENT adherence platform for daily adherence monitoring and differentiated response for those who have missed doses. Participants at standard-of-care facilities receive routine care. Treatment outcomes and resource utilisation will be measured for each participant. The primary effectiveness outcome is a composite index of unfavourable end-of-treatment outcomes (lost to follow-up, death or treatment failure) or treatment recurrence within 6 months of end-of-treatment. For the cost-effectiveness analysis, end-of-treatment outcomes will be used to estimate disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted. Provider and patient cost data will be collected from a subsample of 5 health facilities per study arm, 10 participants per facility (n = 150). We will conduct a societal cost-effectiveness analysis using Bayesian hierarchical models that account for the individual-level correlation between costs and outcomes as well as intra-cluster correlation. An equity impact analysis will be conducted to summarise equity efficiency trade-offs. DISCUSSION: Trial enrolment is ongoing. This paper follows the published trial protocol and describes the protocol and analysis plan for the health economics work package of the ASCENT-Ethiopia trial. This analysis will generate economic evidence to inform the implementation of DATs in Ethiopia and globally. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Pan African Clinical Trial Registry (PACTR) PACTR202008776694999. Registered on 11 August 2020, https://pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=12241 .
Subject(s)
Tuberculosis , Humans , Cost-Benefit Analysis , Ethiopia , Bayes Theorem , Tuberculosis/drug therapy , Treatment Adherence and Compliance , Randomized Controlled Trials as TopicABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis is a leading infectious cause of death worldwide. Novel vaccines will be required to reach global targets and reverse setbacks resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic. We estimated the impact of novel tuberculosis vaccines in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) in several delivery scenarios. METHODS: We calibrated a tuberculosis model to 105 LMICs (accounting for 93% of global incidence). Vaccine scenarios were implemented as the base-case (routine vaccination of those aged 9 years and one-off vaccination for those aged 10 years and older, with country-specific introduction between 2028 and 2047, and 5-year scale-up to target coverage); accelerated scale-up similar to the base-case, but with all countries introducing vaccines in 2025, with instant scale-up; and routine-only (similar to the base-case, but including routine vaccination only). Vaccines were assumed to protect against disease for 10 years, with 50% efficacy. FINDINGS: The base-case scenario would prevent 44·0 million (95% uncertainty range 37·2-51·6) tuberculosis cases and 5·0 million (4·6-5·4) tuberculosis deaths before 2050, compared with equivalent estimates of cases and deaths that would be predicted to occur before 2050 with no new vaccine introduction (the baseline scenario). The accelerated scale-up scenario would prevent 65·5 million (55·6-76·0) cases and 7·9 million (7·3-8·5) deaths before 2050, relative to baseline. The routine-only scenario would prevent 8·8 million (95% uncertainty range 7·6-10·1) cases and 1·1 million (0·9-1·2) deaths before 2050, relative to baseline. INTERPRETATION: Our results suggest novel tuberculosis vaccines could have substantial impact, which will vary depending on delivery strategy. Including a one-off vaccination campaign will be crucial for rapid impact. Accelerated introduction-at a pace similar to that seen for COVID-19 vaccines-would increase the number of lives saved before 2050 by around 60%. Investment is required to support vaccine development, manufacturing, prompt introduction, and scale-up. FUNDING: WHO (2020/985800-0). TRANSLATIONS: For the French, Spanish, Italian and Dutch translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.
Subject(s)
COVID-19 , Tuberculosis Vaccines , Tuberculosis , Humans , Developing Countries , COVID-19 Vaccines , Pandemics , COVID-19/epidemiology , COVID-19/prevention & control , Tuberculosis/epidemiology , Tuberculosis/prevention & controlABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: Successful treatment of tuberculosis depends to a large extent on good adherence to treatment regimens, which relies on directly observed treatment (DOT). This in turn requires frequent visits to health facilities. High costs to patients, stigma and burden to the health system challenged the DOT approach. Digital adherence technologies (DATs) have emerged as possibly more feasible alternatives to DOT but there is conflicting evidence on their effectiveness and feasibility. Our primary objective is to evaluate whether the implementation of DATs with daily monitoring and a differentiated response to patient adherence would reduce poor treatment outcomes compared with the standard of care (SOC). Our secondary objectives include: to evaluate the proportion of patients lost to follow-up; to compare effectiveness by DAT type; to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of DATs; to describe factors affecting the longitudinal engagement of patients with the intervention and to use a simple model to estimate the epidemiological impact and cost-effectiveness of the intervention from a health system perspective. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is a pragmatic two-arm cluster-randomised trial in the Philippines, South Africa, Tanzania and Ukraine, with health facilities as the unit of randomisation. Facilities will first be randomised to either the DAT or SOC arm, and then the DAT arm will be further randomised into medication sleeve/labels or smart pill box in a 1:1:2 ratio for the smart pill box, medication sleeve/label or the SOC respectively. We will use data from the digital adherence platform and routine health facility records for analysis. In the main analysis, we will employ an intention-to-treat approach to evaluate treatment outcomes. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study has been approved by the WHO Research Ethics Review Committee (0003296), and by country-specific committees. The results will be shared at national and international meetings and will be published in peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN17706019.
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Tuberculosis , Humans , Tuberculosis/drug therapy , Treatment Outcome , Patient Compliance , South Africa , TanzaniaABSTRACT
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Although HIV prevention science has advanced over the last four decades, evidence suggests that prevention technologies do not always reach their full potential. Critical health economics evidence at appropriate decision-making junctures, particularly early in the development process, could help identify and address potential barriers to the eventual uptake of future HIV prevention products. This paper aims to identify key evidence gaps and propose health economics research priorities for the field of HIV non-surgical biomedical prevention. METHODS: We used a mixed-methods approach with three distinct components: (i) three systematic literature reviews (costs and cost effectiveness, HIV transmission modelling and quantitative preference elicitation) to understand health economics evidence and gaps in the peer-reviewed literature; (ii) an online survey with researchers working in this field to capture gaps in yet-to-be published research (recently completed, ongoing and future); and (iii) a stakeholder meeting with key global and national players in HIV prevention, including experts in product development, health economics research and policy uptake, to uncover further gaps, as well as to elicit views on priorities and recommendations based on (i) and (ii). RESULTS: Gaps in the scope of available health economics evidence were identified. Little research has been carried out on certain key populations (e.g. transgender people and people who inject drugs) and other vulnerable groups (e.g. pregnant people and people who breastfeed). Research is also lacking on preferences of community actors who often influence or enable access to health services among priority populations. Oral pre-exposure prophylaxis, which has been rolled out in many settings, has been studied in depth. However, research on newer promising technologies, such as long-acting pre-exposure prophylaxis formulations, broadly neutralising antibodies and multipurpose prevention technologies, is lacking. Interventions focussing on reducing intravenous and vertical transmission are also understudied. A disproportionate amount of evidence on low- and middle-income countries comes from two countries (South Africa and Kenya); evidence from other countries in sub-Saharan Africa as well as other low- and middle-income countries is needed. Further, data are needed on non-facility-based service delivery modalities, integrated service delivery and ancillary services. Key methodological gaps were also identified. An emphasis on equity and representation of heterogeneous populations was lacking. Research rarely acknowledged the complex and dynamic use of prevention technologies over time. Greater efforts are needed to collect primary data, quantify uncertainty, systematically compare the full range of prevention options available, and validate pilot and modelling data once interventions are scaled up. Clarity on appropriate cost-effectiveness outcome measures and thresholds is also lacking. Lastly, research often fails to reflect policy-relevant questions and approaches. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a large body of health economics evidence on non-surgical biomedical HIV prevention technologies, important gaps in the scope of evidence and methodology remain. To ensure that high-quality research influences key decision-making junctures and facilitates the delivery of prevention products in a way that maximises impact, we make five broad recommendations related to: improved study design, an increased focus on service delivery, greater community and stakeholder engagement, the fostering of an active network of partners across sectors and an enhanced application of research.
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HIV Infections , Outcome Assessment, Health Care , Pregnancy , Female , Humans , Costs and Cost Analysis , HIV Infections/prevention & control , South AfricaABSTRACT
Background: The main impediment to operational scale-up of HIV self-testing (HIVST) and counselling, is a dearth of information on utilisation, reporting, and linkage to care for HIV-positive individuals. To inform solutions to this issue, this study investigated the utility of self-testers reporting their results using a mobile-health (mHealth) platform, and whether seropositive users linked into care. Method: Candidates who met the recruitment criteria across multiple sites within inner-city Johannesburg each received an HIVST kit. Using short message service (SMS) reminders (50% standard and 50% behavioural science), participants were prompted to self-report results on provided platforms. On the seventh day, users who did not make contact, were called, and surveyed via an interactive voice response system (IVRS). Multivariable regression was used in reporting by age and sex. Results: Of the 9,505 participants, 2,467 (25.9%) participants answered any survey question, and of those, 1,933 (78.4%) were willing to self-report their HIV status. Men were more likely than women to make an inbound call (10.2% vs. 9.1%, p = 0.06) however, women were significantly more likely to self-report their test result (AOR = 1.12, 95%CI = 1.01-1.24, p = 0.025). Overall, self-reporting a test result was predicted by being younger and female. In addition, reporting HIV results was associated with age, 25-35 (AOR = 1.58, 95% CI = 1.24-2.02) and above 35 years (AOR = 2.12, 95% CI = 1.61-2.80). Out of 1,933 participants willing to report their HIV status, 314 reported a positive test, indicating a HIV prevalence of 16.2% (95% CI: 14.6%-18.0%) and of those 204 (65.0%) reported inclination to link to care. Conclusion: While self-reporting HIVST results via an IVRS system yielded a higher response rate, behavioural SMSs were ineffective in increasing self-reporting.
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Background India had an estimated 2.9 million tuberculosis cases and 506 thousand deaths in 2021. Novel vaccines effective in adolescents and adults could reduce this burden. M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination have recently completed Phase IIb trials and estimates of their population-level impact are needed. We estimated the potential health and economic impact of M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination in India and investigated the impact of variation in vaccine characteristics and delivery strategies. Methods We developed an age-stratified compartmental tuberculosis transmission model for India calibrated to country-specific epidemiology. We projected baseline epidemiology to 2050 assuming no-new-vaccine introduction, and M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination scenarios over 2025-2050 exploring uncertainty in product characteristics (vaccine efficacy, mechanism of effect, infection status required for vaccine efficacy, duration of protection) and implementation (achieved vaccine coverage and ages targeted). We estimated reductions in tuberculosis cases and deaths by each scenario compared to no-new-vaccine introduction, as well as costs and cost-effectiveness from health-system and societal perspectives. Results M72/AS01E scenarios were predicted to avert 40% more tuberculosis cases and deaths by 2050 compared to BCG-revaccination scenarios. Cost-effectiveness ratios for M72/AS01E vaccines were around seven times higher than BCG-revaccination, but nearly all scenarios were cost-effective. The estimated average incremental cost was US$190 million for M72/AS01E and US$23 million for BCG-revaccination per year. Sources of uncertainty included whether M72/AS01E was efficacious in uninfected individuals at vaccination, and if BCG-revaccination could prevent disease. Conclusions M72/AS01E and BCG-revaccination could be impactful and cost-effective in India. However, there is great uncertainty in impact, especially given unknowns surrounding mechanism of effect and infection status required for vaccine efficacy. Greater investment in vaccine development and delivery is needed to resolve these unknowns in vaccine product characteristics.
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BACKGROUND: Understanding mental health treatment preferences of adolescents and youth is particularly important for interventions to be acceptable and successful. Person-centered care mandates empowering individuals to take charge of their own health rather than being passive recipients of services. METHODS: We conducted a discrete choice experiment to quantitatively measure adolescent treatment preferences for different care characteristics and explore tradeoffs between these. A total of 153 pregnant adolescents were recruited from two primary healthcare facilities in the informal urban settlement of Nairobi. We selected eight attributes of depression treatment option models drawn from literature review and previous qualitative work. Bayesian d-efficient design was used to identify main effects. A total of ten choice tasks were solicited per respondent. We evaluated mean preferences using mixed logit models to adjust for within subject correlation and account for unobserved heterogeneity. RESULTS: Respondents showed a positive preference that caregivers be provided with information sheets, as opposed to co-participation with caregivers. With regards to treatment options, the respondents showed a positive preference for 8 sessions as compared to 4 sessions. With regards to intervention delivery agents, the respondents had a positive preference for facility nurses as compared to community health volunteers. In terms of support, the respondents showed positive preference for parenting skills as compared to peer support. Our respondents expressed negative preferences of ANC service combined with older mothers as compared to adolescent friendly services and of being offered refreshments alone. A positive preference was revealed for combined refreshments and travel allowance over travel allowance or refreshments alone. A number of these suggestions were about enhancing their experience of maternity clinical care experience. CONCLUSION: This study highlights unique needs of this population. Pregnant adolescents' value responsive maternity and depression care services offered by nurses. Participants shared preference for longer psychotherapy sessions and their preference was to have adolescent centered maternal mental health and child health services within primary care.
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Depression , Pregnant Women , Child , Humans , Adolescent , Female , Pregnancy , Kenya , Depression/therapy , Bayes Theorem , Pregnant Women/psychology , Caregivers/psychology , Choice Behavior , Patient Preference/psychologyABSTRACT
The Gambia has a thriving tourist industry, but in recent decades has developed a reputation as a destination for older, female tourists to seek sexual relationships with young Gambian men. During partnerships or in return for sex, Gambian men may receive financial support or in some cases the opportunity to travel to Europe with a partner. There has been little previous research among these men on sexual risk behaviours, physical and mental health, and health service utilisation. This study describes the economic drivers and health implications of interactions between Gambian men and foreign tourists near tourist resorts in The Gambia. We conducted simultaneous mixed method data collection among Gambian men who regularly interact with tourists: a cross-sectional quantitative survey and discrete choice experiment (DCE) with 242 respondents, three focus group discussions, and 17 in-depth interviews. The survey asked questions on demographic characteristics, sexual history and health-seeking, the DCE elicited trade-offs between partnership characteristics, and qualitative data explored individual and group experiences in depth. We found that sexual activity between Gambian men and tourists was prevalent with 50% of the sample reporting ever having sex with a tourist. Condom use at last sex was significantly higher with tourist (63%) than with Gambian partners (40%, p<0.01). Condom use, money, and opportunity to travel to Europe were most important to respondents in the DCE. Qualitative data validated and explained quantitative findings, notably pressures to engage in unprotected sex and potential travel to Europe. Although men's physical health needs were broadly met, mental health, substance use and sexual health needs were not. Young men working on the beaches of The Gambia face substantial health risks, including from STIs and mental health issues. The health system needs to understand barriers to existing health services, and how they can meet the needs of these vulnerable men.