TLR2/4 are novel activating receptors for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on NK cells.

Background: In early infected or severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients, circulating NK cells are consistently reduced, despite being highly activated or exhausted. The aim of this paper was to establish whether severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike glycoprotein (SP) may directly trigger NK cells and through which receptor(s). Methods: SP-stimulated human NK cells have been evaluated for the expression of activation markers, cytokine release, and cytotoxic activity, as well as for gene expression profiles and NF-kB phosphorylation, and they have been silenced with specific small interfering RNAs. Results: SPs from the Wuhan strain and other variants of concern (VOCs) directly bind and stimulate purified NK cells by increasing activation marker expression, cytokine release, and cytolytic activity, prevalently in the CD56brightNK cell subset. VOC-SPs differ in their ability to activate NK cells, G614, and Delta-Plus strains providing the strongest activity in the majority of donors. While VOC-SPs do not trigger ACE2, which is not expressed on NK cells, or other activating receptors, they directly and variably bind to both Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4. Moreover, SP-driven NK cell functions are inhibited upon masking such receptors or silencing the relative genes. Lastly, VOC-SPs upregulate CD56dimNK cell functions in COVID-19 recovered, but not in non-infected, individuals. Conclusions: TLR2 and TLR4 are novel activating receptors for SP in NK cells, suggesting a new role of these cells in orchestrating the pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The pathogenic relevance of this finding is highlighted by the fact that free SP providing NK cell activation is frequently detected in a SARS-CoV-2 inflamed environment and in plasma of infected and long-COVID-19 subjects.

MicroRNA analysis of Natural Killer cell-derived exosomes: the microRNA let-7b-5p is enriched in exosomes and participates in their anti-tumor effects against pancreatic cancer cells.

Natural Killer (NK) cells are important components of the immune system in the defense against tumor growth and metastasis. They release exosomes containing proteins and nucleic acids, including microRNAs (miRNAs). NK-derived exosomes play a role in the anti-tumor NK cell function since they are able to recognize and kill cancer cells. However, the involvement of exosomal miRNAs in the function of NK exosomes is poorly understood. In this study, we explored the miRNA content of NK exosomes by microarray as compared to their cellular counterparts. The expression of selected miRNAs and lytic potential of NK exosomes against childhood B acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells after co-cultures with pancreatic cancer cells were also evaluated. We identified a small subset of miRNAs, including miR-16-5p, miR-342-3p, miR-24-3p, miR-92a-3p and let-7b-5p that is highly expressed in NK exosomes. Moreover, we provide evidence that NK exosomes efficiently increase let-7b-5p expression in pancreatic cancer cells and induce inhibition of cell proliferation by targeting the cell cycle regulator CDK6. Let-7b-5p transfer by NK exosomes could represent a novel mechanism by which NK cells counteract tumor growth. However, both cytolytic activity and miRNA content of NK exosomes were reduced upon co-culture with pancreatic cancer cells. Alteration in the miRNA cargo of NK exosomes, together with their reduced cytotoxic activity, could represent another strategy exerted by cancer to evade the immune response. Our study provides new information on the molecular mechanisms used by NK exosomes to exert anti-tumor-activity and offers new clues to integrate cancer treatments with NK exosomes.

CPHEN-15: Comprehensive phenotyping of human peripheral blood helper-ILCs by flow cytometry.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) comprise cytotoxic NK cells and helper-ILCs, which are further divided in ILC1, ILC2, and ILC3. Helper-ILCs mirror the effector functions of helper T-cell subsets and contribute to host immune defense, tissue homeostasis and repair through cytokine secretion. Although they are mainly tissue-resident, helper ILCs are also found in the peripheral blood (PB). In the human setting, it may be needed to analyze circulating helper ILCs to compare pathological to physiological conditions. In this review, we provide simple guidelines and a list of markers useful to study human PB helper ILCs phenotype and function by flow cytometry.

Immunotherapy targeting inhibitory checkpoints: The role of NK and other innate lymphoid cells.

Monoclonal antibodies that target specific ligand-receptor signaling pathways and act as immune checkpoint inhibitors have been designed to remove the brakes in T cells and restore strong and long-term antitumor-immunity. Of note, many of these inhibitory receptors are also expressed by Innate Lymphoid Cells (ILCs), suggesting that also blockade of inhibitory pathways in innate lymphocytes has a role in the response to the treatment with checkpoint inhibitors. ILCs comprise cytotoxic NK cells and "helper" subsets and are important cellular components in the tumor microenvironment. In addition to killing tumor cells, ILCs release inflammatory cytokines, thus contributing to shape adaptive cell activation in the context of immunotherapy. Therefore, ILCs play both a direct and indirect role in the response to checkpoint blockade. Understanding the impact of ILC-mediated response on the treatment outcome would contribute to enhance immunotherapy efficacy, as still numerous patients resist or relapse.

Comparison of three validated PD-L1 immunohistochemical assays in urothelial carcinoma of the bladder: interchangeability and issues related to patient selection.

Different programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) assays and scoring algorithms are being used in the evaluation of PD-L1 expression for the selection of patients for immunotherapy in specific settings of advanced urothelial carcinoma (UC). In this paper, we sought to investigate three approved assays (Ventana SP142 and SP263, and Dako 22C3) in UC with emphasis on implications for patient selection for atezolizumab/pembrolizumab as the first line of treatment. Tumors from 124 patients with invasive UC of the bladder were analyzed using tissue microarrays (TMA). Serial sections were stained with SP263 and SP142 on Ventana Benchmark Ultra and with 22C3 on Dako Autostainer Link 48. Stains were evaluated independently by two observers and scored using the combined positive score (CPS) and tumor infiltrating immune cells (IC) algorithms. Differences in proportions (DP), overall percent agreement (OPA), positive percent agreement (PPA), negative percent agreement (NPA), and Cohen κ were calculated for all comparable cases. Good overall concordance in analytic performance was observed for 22C3 and SP263 with both scoring algorithms; specifically, the highest OPA was observed between 22C3 and SP263 (89.6%) when using CPS. On the other hand, SP142 consistently showed lower positivity rates with high differences in proportions (DP) compared with 22C3 and SP263 with both CPS and IC, and with a low PPA, especially when using the CPS algorithm. In conclusion, 22C3 and SP263 assays show comparable analytical performance while SP142 shows divergent staining results, with important implications for the selection of patients for both pembrolizumab and atezolizumab.

Glucocorticoids inhibit human hematopoietic stem cell differentiation toward a common ILC precursor.

BACKGROUND: Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) comprise cytotoxic natural killer (NK) cells and helper ILCs (hILCs). Human hILC development is less characterized as compared with that of NK cells, although all ILCs are developmentally related. It has been reported that the immunosuppressive drugs glucocorticoids (GCs) regulate ILC function, but whether they control ILC differentiation from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is unknown. OBJECTIVES: This study sought to analyze the effect of GCs on ILC development from HSCs. METHODS: This study exploited an in vitro system to generate and expand from peripheral blood HSCs a multipotent CD56+ ILC precursor able to differentiate into NK cells, ILC1s, and ILC3s. We also analyzed ex vivo, at different time points, the peripheral blood of recipients of allogeneic HSC transplantation who were or were not treated with GCs and compared ILC subset reconstitution. RESULTS: Invitro, GCs favor the generation of NK cells from myeloid precursors, while they strongly impair lymphoid development. In support of these data, recipients of HSC transplantation who had been treated with GCs display a lower number of circulating hILCs, including the ILC precursor (ILCP) previously identified as a systemic substrate for tissue ILC differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: GCs impair the development of the CD117+ ILCP from CD34+ HSCs, while they do not affect the further steps of ILCP differentiation toward NK cells and hILC subsets. This reflects an association of GC treatment with a marked reduction of circulating hILCs in the recipients of HSC transplantation.

Polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells impair the anti-tumor efficacy of GD2.CAR T-cells in patients with neuroblastoma.

The outcome of patients affected by high-risk or metastatic neuroblastoma (NB) remains grim, with ≥ 50% of the children experiencing relapse or progression of the disease despite multimodal, intensive treatment. In order to identify new strategies to improve the overall survival and the quality of life of these children, we recently developed and optimized a third-generation GD2-specific chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) construct, which is currently under evaluation in our Institution in a phase I/II clinical trial (NCT03373097) enrolling patients with relapsed/refractory NB. We observed that our CAR T-cells are able to induce marked tumor reduction and even achieve complete remission with a higher efficiency than that of other CAR T-cells reported in previous studies. However, often responses are not sustained and relapses occur. Here, we demonstrate for the first time a mechanism of resistance to GD2.CAR T-cell treatment, showing how polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN-MDSC) increase in the peripheral blood (PB) of NB patients after GD2.CAR T-cell treatment in case of relapse and loss of response. In vitro, isolated PMN-MDSC demonstrate to inhibit the anti-tumor cytotoxicity of different generations of GD2.CAR T-cells. Gene-expression profiling of GD2.CAR T-cells "conditioned" with PMN-MDSC shows downregulation of genes involved in cell activation, signal transduction, inflammation and cytokine/chemokine secretion. Analysis of NB gene-expression dataset confirms a correlation between expression of these genes and patient outcome. Moreover, in patients treated with GD2.CAR T-cells, the frequency of circulating PMN-MDSC inversely correlates with the levels of GD2.CAR T-cells, resulting more elevated in patients who did not respond or lost response to the treatment. The presence and the frequency of PMN-MDSC in PB of high-risk and metastatic NB represents a useful prognostic marker to predict the response to GD2.CAR T-cells and other adoptive immunotherapy. This study underlines the importance of further optimization of both CAR T-cells and clinical trial in order to target elements of the tumor microenvironment.

Regulation of the Immune System Development by Glucocorticoids and Sex Hormones.

Through the release of hormones, the neuro-endocrine system regulates the immune system function promoting adaptation of the organism to the external environment and to intrinsic physiological changes. Glucocorticoids (GCs) and sex hormones not only regulate immune responses, but also control the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) differentiation and subsequent maturation of immune cell subsets. During the development of an organism, this regulation has long-term consequences. Indeed, the effects of GC exposure during the perinatal period become evident in the adulthood. Analogously, in the context of HSC transplantation (HSCT), the immune system development starts de novo from the donor HSCs. In this review, we summarize the effects of GCs and sex hormones on the regulation of HSC, as well as of adaptive and innate immune cells. Moreover, we discuss the short and long-term implications on hematopoiesis of sex steroid ablation and synthetic GC administration upon HSCT.

PD-1/PD-L1 in Cancer: Pathophysiological, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Aspects.

Immune evasion is a key strategy adopted by tumor cells to escape the immune system while promoting their survival and metastatic spreading. Indeed, several mechanisms have been developed by tumors to inhibit immune responses. PD-1 is a cell surface inhibitory receptor, which plays a major physiological role in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance. In pathological conditions, activation of the PD-1/PD-Ls signaling pathway may block immune cell activation, a mechanism exploited by tumor cells to evade the antitumor immune control. Targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis has represented a major breakthrough in cancer treatment. Indeed, the success of PD-1 blockade immunotherapies represents an unprecedented success in the treatment of different cancer types. To improve the therapeutic efficacy, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms regulating PD-1 expression and signaling in the tumor context is required. We provide an overview of the current knowledge of PD-1 expression on both tumor-infiltrating T and NK cells, summarizing the recent evidence on the stimuli regulating its expression. We also highlight perspectives and limitations of the role of PD-L1 expression as a predictive marker, discuss well-established and novel potential approaches to improve patient selection and clinical outcome and summarize current indications for anti-PD1/PD-L1 immunotherapy.

Impact of PD-L1 and PD-1 Expression on the Prognostic Significance of CD8+ Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer.

The immune infiltrate within tumors has proved to be very powerful in the prognostic stratification of patients and much attention is also being paid towards its predictive value. In this work we therefore aimed at clarifying the significance and impact of PD-L1 and PD-1 expression on the prognostic value of CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) in a cohort of consecutive patients with primary resected non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Tissue microarrays (TMA) were built using one representative formalin fixed paraffin embedded block for every case, with 5 cores for each block. TMA sections were stained with PD-L1 (clone SP263), PD-1 (clone NAT105) and CD8 (clone SP57). Number of CD8+ cells per mm2 were automatically counted; median, 25th and 75th percentiles of CD8+ cells were used as threshold for statistical clinical outcome analysis and evaluated in patients subgroups defined by expression of PD-L1 and PD-1 within tumors. We found an overall strong prognostic value of CD8+ cells in our cohort of 314 resected NSCLC, especially in PD-L1 negative tumors lacking PD-1+ TILs, and demonstrated that in PD-L1 positive tumors a higher density of CD8+ lymphocytes is necessary to improve the prognosis. Our data strengthen the concept of the importance of the assessment and quantification of the immune contexture in cancer and, similarly to what has been carried on in colorectal cancer, promote the efforts for the establishment of an Immunoscore for NSCLC for prognostic and possibly predictive purposes.

Nociceptive sensory neurons promote CD8 T cell responses to HSV-1 infection.

Host protection against cutaneous herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection relies on the induction of a robust adaptive immune response. Here, we show that Nav1.8+ sensory neurons, which are involved in pain perception, control the magnitude of CD8 T cell priming and expansion in HSV-1-infected mice. The ablation of Nav1.8-expressing sensory neurons is associated with extensive skin lesions characterized by enhanced inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production. Mechanistically, Nav1.8+ sensory neurons are required for the downregulation of neutrophil infiltration in the skin after viral clearance to limit the severity of tissue damage and restore skin homeostasis, as well as for eliciting robust CD8 T cell priming in skin-draining lymph nodes by controlling dendritic cell responses. Collectively, our data reveal an important role for the sensory nervous system in regulating both innate and adaptive immune responses to viral infection, thereby opening up possibilities for new therapeutic strategies.

NK Cells and PMN-MDSCs in the Graft From G-CSF Mobilized Haploidentical Donors Display Distinct Gene Expression Profiles From Those of the Non-Mobilized Counterpart.

A recent approach of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) transplantation from haploidentical donors "mobilized" with G-CSF is based on the selective depletion of αß T and B lymphocytes from the graft. Through this approach, the patient receives both HSC and mature donor-derived effector cells (including NK cells), which exert both anti-leukemia activity and protection against infections. We previously showed that donor HSC mobilization with G-CSF results in accumulation in the graft of polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN-MDSCs), capable of inhibiting in vitro the anti-leukemia activity of allogeneic NK cells. Here, we performed a detailed gene expression analysis on NK cells and PMN-MDSCs both derived from mobilized graft. Cytotoxicity assays and real time PCR arrays were performed in NK cells. Microarray technology followed by bioinformatics analysis was used for gene expression profiling in PMN-MDSCs. Results indicate that NK cells from the graft have a lower cytolytic activity as compared to those from non-mobilized samples. Further, mobilized PMN-MDSCs displayed a peculiar transcriptional profile distinguishing them from non-mobilized ones. Differential expression of pro-proliferative and immune-modulatory genes was detected in mobilized PMN-MDSCs. These data strengthen the concept that G-CSF-mobilized PMN-MDSCs present in the graft display unique molecular characteristics, in line with the strong inhibitory effect on donor NK cells.

Human NK cells, their receptors and function.

NK cells are cytotoxic components of innate lymphoid cells (ILC) that provide a first line of defense against viral infections and contribute to control tumor growth and metastasis. Their function is finely regulated by an array of HLA-specific and non-HLA-specific inhibitory and activating receptors which allow to discriminate between healthy and altered cells. Human NK cells gained a major attention in recent years because of the important progresses in understanding their biology and of some promising data in tumor therapy. In this review, we will outline well-established issues of human NK cells and discuss some of the open questions, debates, and recent advances regarding their origin, differentiation, and tissue distribution. Newly defined NK cell specializations, including the impact of inhibitory checkpoints on their function, their crosstalk with other cell types, and the remarkable adaptive features acquired in response to certain virus infections will also be discussed.

Interaction Between MDSC and NK Cells in Solid and Hematological Malignancies: Impact on HSCT.

Myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are heterogeneous populations that through the release of soluble factors and/or by cell-to-cell interactions suppress both innate and adaptive immune effector cells. In pathological conditions, characterized by the presence of inflammation, a partial block in the differentiation potential of myeloid precursors causes an accumulation of these immunosuppressive cell subsets both in peripheral blood and in tissues. On the contrary, NK cells represent a major player of innate immunity able to counteract tumor growth. The anti-tumor activity of NK cells is primarily related to their cytolytic potential and to the secretion of soluble factors or cytokines that may act on tumors either directly or indirectly upon the recruitment of other cell types. NK cells have been shown to play a fundamental role in haploidentical hemopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), for the therapy of high-risk leukemias. A deeper analysis of MDSC functional effects demonstrated that these cells are capable, through several mechanisms, to reduce the potent GvL activity exerted by NK cells. It is conceivable that, in this transplantation setting, the MDSC-removal or -inactivation may represent a promising strategy to restore the anti-leukemia effect mediated by NK cells. Thus, a better knowledge of the cellular interactions occurring in the tumor microenvironment could promote the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of solid and hematological malignances.

Glucocorticoids and the cytokines IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 present in the tumor microenvironment induce PD-1 expression on human natural killer cells.

BACKGROUND: Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)-immune checkpoint blockade has provided significant clinical efficacy across various types of cancer by unleashing both T and natural killer (NK) cell-mediated antitumor responses. However, resistance to immunotherapy occurs for many patients, rendering the identification of the mechanisms that control PD-1 expression extremely important to increase the response to the therapy. OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify the stimuli and the molecular mechanisms that induce the de novo PD-1 expression on human NK cells in the tumor setting. METHODS: NK cells freshly isolated from peripheral blood of healthy donors were stimulated with different combinations of molecules, and PD-1 expression was studied at the mRNA and protein levels. Moreover, ex vivo analysis of tumor microenvironment and NK cell phenotype was performed. RESULTS: Glucocorticoids are indispensable for PD-1 induction on human NK cells, in cooperation with a combination of cytokines that are abundant at the tumor site. Mechanistically, glucocorticoids together with IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 not only upregulate PDCD1 transcription, but also activate a previously unrecognized transcriptional program leading to enhanced mRNA translation and resulting in an increased PD-1 amount in NK cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence of a novel immune suppressive mechanism of glucocorticoids involving the transcriptional and translational control of an important immune checkpoint.

New insights into the cell- and tissue-specificity of glucocorticoid actions.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are endogenous hormones that are crucial for the homeostasis of the organism and adaptation to the external environment. Because of their anti-inflammatory effects, synthetic GCs are also extensively used in clinical practice. However, almost all cells in the body are sensitive to GC regulation. As a result, these mediators have pleiotropic effects, which may be undesirable or detrimental to human health. Here, we summarize the recent findings that contribute to deciphering the molecular mechanisms downstream of glucocorticoid receptor activation. We also discuss the complex role of GCs in infectious diseases such as sepsis and COVID-19, in which the balance between pathogen elimination and protection against excessive inflammation and immunopathology needs to be tightly regulated. An understanding of the cell type- and context-specific actions of GCs from the molecular to the organismal level would help to optimize their therapeutic use.

Polymorphonuclear Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Are Abundant in Peripheral Blood of Cancer Patients and Suppress Natural Killer Cell Anti-Tumor Activity.

Tumor microenvironment (TME) includes a wide variety of cell types and soluble factors capable of suppressing immune-responses. While the role of NK cells in TME has been analyzed, limited information is available on the presence and the effect of polymorphonuclear (PMN) myeloid-derived suppressor cells, (MDSC). Among the immunomodulatory cells present in TME, MDSC are potentially efficient in counteracting the anti-tumor activity of several effector cells. We show that PMN-MDSC are present in high numbers in the PB of patients with primary or metastatic lung tumor. Their frequency correlated with the overall survival of patients. In addition, it inversely correlated with low frequencies of NK cells both in the PB and in tumor lesions. Moreover, such NK cells displayed an impaired anti-tumor activity, even those isolated from PB. The compromised function of NK cells was consequent to their interaction with PMN-MDSC. Indeed, we show that the expression of major activating NK receptors, the NK cytolytic activity and the cytokine production were inhibited upon co-culture with PMN-MDSC through both cell-to-cell contact and soluble factors. In this context, we show that exosomes derived from PMN-MDSC are responsible of a significant immunosuppressive effect on NK cell-mediated anti-tumor activity. Our data may provide a novel useful tool to implement the tumor immunoscore. Indeed, the detection of PMN-MDSC in the PB may be of prognostic value, providing clues on the presence and extension of both adult and pediatric tumors and information on the efficacy not only of immune response but also of immunotherapy and, possibly, on the clinical outcome.

NK cells and ILCs in tumor immunotherapy.

Cells of the innate immunity play an important role in tumor immunotherapy. Thus, NK cells can control tumor growth and metastatic spread. Thanks to their strong cytolytic activity against tumors, different approaches have been developed for exploiting/harnessing their function in patients with leukemia or solid tumors. Pioneering trials were based on the adoptive transfer of autologous NK cell-enriched cell populations that were expanded in vitro and co-infused with IL-2. Although relevant results were obtained in patients with advanced melanoma, the effect was mostly limited to certain metastatic localizations, particularly to the lung. In addition, the severe IL-2-related toxicity and the preferential IL-2-induced expansion of Treg limited this type of approach. This limitation may be overcome by the use of IL-15, particularly of modified IL-15 molecules to improve its half-life and optimize the biological effects. Other approaches to harness NK cell function include stimulation via TLR, the use of bi- and tri-specific NK cell engagers (BiKE and TriKE) linking activating NK receptors (e.g. CD16) to tumor-associated antigens and even incorporating an IL-15 moiety (TriKE). As recently shown, in tumor patients, NK cells may also express inhibitory checkpoints, primarily PD-1. Accordingly, the therapeutic use of checkpoint inhibitors may unleash NK cells against PD-L1+ tumors. This effect may be predominant and crucial in tumors that have lost HLA cl-I expression, thus resulting "invisible" to T lymphocytes. Additional approaches in which NK cells may represent an important tool for cancer therapy, are to exploit the unique properties of the "adaptive" NK cells. These CD57+ NKG2C+ cells, despite their mature stage and a potent cytolytic activity, maintain a strong proliferating capacity. This property revealed to be crucial in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), particularly in the haplo-HSCT setting, to cure high-risk leukemias. T depleted haplo-HSCT (e.g. from one of the parents) allowed to save the life of thousands of patients lacking a HLA-compatible donor. In this setting, NK cells have been shown to play an essential role against leukemia cells and infections. Another major advance is represented by chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered NK cells. CAR-NK, different from CAR-T cells, may be obtained from allogeneic donors since they do not cause GvHD. Accordingly, they may represent "off-the-shelf" products to promptly treat tumor patients, with affordable costs. Different from NK cells, helper ILC (ILC1, ILC2 and ILC3), the innate counterpart of T helper cell subsets, remain rather ambiguous with respect to their anti-tumor activity. A possible exception is represented by a subset of ILC3: their frequency in peri-tumoral tissues in patients with NSCLC directly correlates with a better prognosis, possibly reflecting their ability to contribute to the organization of tertiary lymphoid structures, an important site of T cell-mediated anti-tumor responses. It is conceivable that innate immunity may significantly contribute to the major advances that immunotherapy has ensured and will continue to ensure to the cure of cancer.

The Immune Checkpoint PD-1 in Natural Killer Cells: Expression, Function and Targeting in Tumour Immunotherapy.

In the last years, immunotherapy with antibodies against programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) has shown remarkable efficacy in the treatment of different types of tumours, representing a true revolution in oncology. While its efficacy has initially been attributed only to unleashing T cell responses, responsivity to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade was observed in some tumours with low Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) I expression and increasing evidence has revealed PD-1 surface expression and inhibitory function also in natural killer (NK) cells. Thus, the contribution of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy to the recovery of NK cell anti-tumour response has recently been appreciated. Here, we summarize the studies investigating PD-1 expression and function in NK cells, together with the limitations and perspectives of immunotherapies. A better understanding of checkpoint biology is needed to design next-generation therapeutic strategies and to improve the clinical protocols of current therapies.