Capturing the heterogeneity of life on the streets: A person-centered analysis of street histories and social connections of youth.

INTRODUCTION: The heterogeneity of street-involved youth was examined using a person-centered approach. Youth were classified based on patterns of street involvement and the identified profiles compared to identify theoretically coherent and practically significant differences. METHODS: Participants were 111 street-involved youth aged 9 to 18 (M age = 14.15 years; 81.1% male, 91.1% non-white) from three Brazilian cities. Youth completed a life history interview and structured assessment. Latent class analysis was used to identify three profiles of youth based on reasons for going to the street and connections to major developmental contexts (street, family, institutions). Profile comparisons on psychosocial variables (e.g., age, life events) and adjustment indicators (e.g., drug use, life satisfaction) were conducted using multinomial logistic regression. RESULTS: The largest profile (48.6%) included youth drawn to the street by drug use or trafficking, who had moderate connections to street and family. Another group (40.5%) went to the street to escape family dysfunction, and the street represented their primary developmental context. These groups differed on some psychosocial indicators but had similar patterns of adjustment. The third group of youth (10.8%) had families with a history of street involvement and maintained strong ties to all three developmental contexts. These youth had generally better adjustment than their peers (e.g., less drug use, higher life satisfaction) but had higher levels of sexual risk related to the overrepresentation of girls. CONCLUSIONS: Street involvement is a multidetermined phenomenon that may expose young people to distinct conditions of vulnerability. Findings have implications for research, practice, and policy.

Adolescents, Street, Drugs and Psychoactive Substances: A Study on Risk and Protection / Adolescentes, Rua, Drogas e Substâncias Psicoativas: Um Estudo sobre Risco e Proteção

Abstract The article describes the consumption of psychoactive substances (PSs) by street-involved children and adolescents (SCA) in three Brazilian state capitals and examines adverse life events due to drug involvement. The longitudinal study included 108 SCA (9-18 years old, both sexes), grouped according to the main reason for going to the street: drugs, caregivers, escape, work and freedom. It also discusses the impact of drugs, trafficking and the place that this theme has occupied in public policies, social interventions and the life trajectory of these participants, through a case study. It is intended that these data can support the operation of interventions and the formulation of public policies that guarantee integral protection.

Resumo O artigo descreve o consumo de substâncias psicoativas (SPAs) por crianças e adolescentes em situação de rua (CASR) em três capitais brasileiras e compreende os eventos de vida adversos decorrentes do envolvimento com as drogas. Participaram do estudo longitudinal 108 CASR (9-18 anos; ambos os sexos), agrupados de acordo com o principal motivo de ida para a rua: drogas, cuidadores, fuga, trabalho e liberdade. Discute, ainda, o impacto da droga, do tráfico e do lugar que este tema tem ocupado nas políticas públicas, nas intervenções sociais e na trajetória de vida destes participantes por meio de um estudo de caso. Pretende-se que esses dados possam subsidiar a operacionalização de intervenções e a formulação de políticas públicas que garantam a proteção integral.

Configurations of Autonomy and Relatedness in a Multiethnic U.S. Sample of Parent-Adolescent Dyads.

Configurations of autonomy and relatedness were explored in 232 adolescent-parent dyads. Youth (58% female) were 13-18 years old and ethnically diverse (38% Latino American, 32% European American, 30% African American). Cluster analysis was used to identify three distinct groups based on youth and parent reports of parental autonomy support and family relatedness. The three clusters differed on key demographics (e.g., parent education and income, immigrant background, ethnicity) and theoretically relevant indicators of family and individual functioning (e.g., parent and youth reports of decision making and family obligations; youth-reported attachment and minor delinquency). Findings provide empirical support for theoretical models of autonomy-relatedness (e.g., Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36, 2005, 403) and contribute to understanding of how autonomy and relatedness intersect to influence adolescent and family adaptation.

Trajectories of Adjustment in a Brazilian Sample of Street-Involved Youth.

Trajectories of adjustment were examined in a sample of street-involved youth across a 1-year period. Participants (N = 113; Mage  = 14.18 years; 80.5% male, 91% non-White) were recruited in three Brazilian cities. Interviews conducted at three time points included six measures of physical and psychological adjustment. Unconditional growth models revealed linear declines over time (i.e., improved adjustment) on three indicators: health symptoms, sexual risk behaviors, and negative affect. There were no linear changes in drug use, positive affect, or life satisfaction. Conditional growth models revealed few significant effects for age or gender, but ratings of stressful life events moderated longitudinal changes in health symptoms, drug use, and negative affect. Implications for practice, policy, and theory are discussed.

A Community-Based Participatory Assessment of the Health Status and Obesity Risks in Children From Rural Farmworker Families in the Midwest.

Obesity prevalence is higher among Hispanic children (22.4%) compared with general U.S. children (17%). Children of migrant and seasonal farmworking families are at heightened risk for obesity and related conditions. Limited research, including needs assessments and health promotion programs, has been conducted in Latino migrant farm working communities. Our objective was to identify needs, opportunities, and barriers for designing health promotion programs for children attending a community agency in a small Midwestern town. As part of a community-based participatory research project, a needs assessment was undertaken with 38 children aged 5 to 12 years (74% Latino). Measures included demographics, dietary patterns, physical activity (PA), and anthropometrics. The study was approved by the university's institutional review board and written parental consent, and child assent, was obtained. More than half of the sample had overweight (29%) or obesity (26%); 31% had elevated blood pressure levels. Participants did not meet the U.S. Department of Agriculture recommendations for most food groups and nutrients; 13% fell into the "poor" and 87% into the "needs improvement" category based on Healthy Eating Index scores. PA levels were low; only 34% of respondents engaged in sufficient exercise. Findings indicate the need for programs promoting improvements in dietary intake and increased PA.

The important (but neglected) developmental value of roles: Findings from youth programs.

Developmental theory historically viewed demanding roles (at home, job) as important developmental contexts. However, adolescents' participation in these roles has fallen. This qualitative research examined role experiences in United States youth development programs. A central question among others was, "How can youth experience internal motivation fulfilling externally imposed role obligations?" We interviewed 73 youth with substantive work roles (e.g., Leader, Reporter, and Teacher) in 13 arts, science-technology, and leadership programs. Youth (51% female) were 14- to 18-years-old and ethnically diverse. We used grounded-theory methods suited to understanding youth's active learning processes in context. Findings illuminated youth's experiences in 4 important transactions or "steps." Youth: (a) accepted roles based on personal goals, (b) encountered difficult challenges similar to adult roles (e.g., conflicting viewpoints, role strain), (c) drew on resources to overcome challenges and fulfill role demands, and (d) learned through these experiences. Across these steps, findings suggested 3 powerful development processes. First, youth experienced multiple sources of internal motivation (e.g., agency within roles, personal and social investment, and "good pressure"), which fostered high engagement in role performance and learning. Second, experiences grappling with and fulfilling difficult role demands helped youth build important competencies for action (e.g., strategic thinking, perseverance). Third, youth's experience of accountability to others served as a powerful driver of responsibility development: Because youth were invested, they took ownership of obligations to others and learned responsive modes of thinking and acting, which they transferred to family, school, and elsewhere. We propose that teens would benefit from more opportunities for role experiences like these. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Adverse childhood experiences and adjustment: A longitudinal study of street-involved youth in Brazil.

Most research on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) has been conducted in high-income countries in the global North. The current longitudinal study examined the prevalence, overlap, and impact of ACEs in a sample of Brazilian children and adolescents who use city streets as spaces for socialization and survival (i.e., street-involved youth). Participants (N = 113; M age = 14.18 years) were recruited in three cities following standardized procedures. Most youth were male (80.5%) and non-White (91%). Lifetime exposure to ACEs was assessed at the first study time point; six indicators of psychological, behavioral, and physical adjustment were assessed 6 months later. Analyses addressed three research goals. First, the prevalence of seven ACEs was examined. Youth reported an average of 4.8 ACEs (SD = 1.25); no significant age or gender differences were found in ACEs exposure (all ps > .05). Second, the overlap between different ACEs was explored. Family dysfunction was correlated with family disruption and physical abuse; poverty and physical abuse were related (ps < .05). Third, prospective associations between ACEs and adjustment were tested. Total number of ACEs was not significantly correlated with any outcome, but several associations emerged for specific ACEs. For example, death of a close friend or family member was prospectively associated with negative affect; sexual abuse was associated with illicit drug use and physical health symptoms (ps < .05). Findings highlight the prevalence of ACEs in this vulnerable population and underscore the value of extending research on ACEs into novel populations and contexts.

Experiencing and Learning About Emotions: A Longitudinal Analysis of Youth Program Participants.

Organized youth programs provide a context where adolescents experience strong emotions and may develop new ways of thinking about and dealing with emotions. The current study examined youth's reports of positive and negative emotions arising during the course of their work in different types of project-based programs; learning about emotions from different sources (e.g., from observing peers, interacting with adult staff, or engaging in self-reflection); and longitudinal associations between emotional experiences and learning. Quantitative data were collected at two time points from 319 youth (57% female; M age = 15.8 years; 33% Latino, 29% Black, 32% White, 6% other) participating in 14 Midwestern programs focused on Leadership, Arts and Performance (Arts), and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM). Overall, positive emotions occurred more frequently than negative emotions, but emotional experiences differed based on the focus of the program. There were few significant differences in emotional learning from various sources (self, peers, staff) across the three types of programs. Multiple regression models controlling for prior learning indicated that, consistent with theory, positive emotions predicted subsequent learning about emotions from all sources. In contrast, negative emotions predicted increased learning from peers but decreased learning from self, suggesting that experiencing negative (vs. positive) emotions may lead youth to attend to different sources of information. The study's findings have implications for theory, research, and practice.

Responsibility development transfers across contexts: Reciprocal pathways between home and afterschool programs.

We investigated adolescent responsibility across 2 developmental contexts, home and an afterschool program. Longitudinal data were collected from 355 ethnically diverse 11-20-year-old adolescents (M = 15.49; 55.9% female) in 14 project-based programs. Youth rated their responsibility in the program and at home at 4 time points; parents and leaders rated youth at Time 1. The first research objective was to evaluate 3 aspects of construct validity concerning scores of responsibility assessed through a new measure. Analyses provided evidence that program- and home-responsibility scores were distinct (i.e., evidence of the structural aspect of validity); that responsibility scores were invariant across age, gender, and ethnicity (i.e., generalizability evidence); and of external validity based on parent reports (i.e., convergent evidence). The second objective was to examine cross-context transfer of responsibility. A series of cross-lagged structural equation models (SEMs) revealed that higher responsibility in each context (home, program) predicted higher responsibility in the other context, even after controlling for the stability and within-time associations. At the last time interval, the program-to-home path was significantly stronger than the corresponding home-to-program path. The third objective was to assess whether these relations were moderated by adolescent ethnicity, gender, age, or years in the program. Multigroup SEMs revealed that pathways of influence did not differ across groups. Taken as a whole, results indicate that experiences in the 2 contexts of home and program lead to interindividual differences in the development of youth self-reported responsibility, but that affordances for responsibility development across contexts change over time. (PsycINFO Database Record

"Vocês me encontram em qualquer lugar": realizando pesquisa longitudinal com adolescentes em situação de rua / "You find me anywhere": conducting longitudinal research with adolescents in street situation / "Ustedes me encuentran en cualquier lugar": realizando investigación longitudinal con adolescentes en situación de calle

Com o objetivo de aprofundar a pesquisa longitudinal com populações de difícil acesso, este artigo descreve as estratégias metodológicas utilizadas em um estudo longitudinal realizado com 113 crianças e adolescentes em situação de rua em três capitais brasileiras. Além de descrever as diferentes etapas do processo de pesquisa, o artigo detalha as estratégias multimétodos que possibilitaram boa retenção de amostra (72% aos 6 meses e 62% aos 12 meses), bem como a validade dos dados resultantes da inserção ecológica e triangulação de dados. A análise de atrito revelou apenas algumas diferenças entre os adolescentes que foram retidos versus perdidos no seguimento dos indicadores demográficos e psicossociais. O exame das razões para o atrito fornece informações que podem ser usadas em futuras pesquisas de desenvolvimento em contextos atípicos. Por fim, defende-se que uma pesquisa desta natureza pode ter impactos positivos sobre o sistema de proteção de direitos e, conseqüentemente, sobre a rede de proteção dos participantes.

With the goal of furthering longitudinal research with hard to reach populations, this article describes the methodological strategies used in a longitudinal study conducted with 113 children and adolescents in street situations in three Brazilian capital cities. In addition to describing the different stages of the research process, the article details the multimethod strategies that enabled good sample retention (72% at 6 months and 62% at 12 months), as well as the validity of data resulting from ecological insertion and triangulation of data. Attrition analysis revealed only a few differences between youth who were retained vs. lost to follow-up on demographic and psychosocial indicators. Examination of reasons for attrition provides information that can be used in future research of development in atypical contexts. Finally, it is argued that research of this nature can have positive impacts on the rights protection system and consequently for participants' network of protection.

Con el fin de avanzar em la investigación con poblaciones de difícil acceso, en este artículo se describen las estrategias metodológicas utilizadas en um estudio longitudinal de 113 niños/niñas y adolescentes en situación de calle, en tres capitales brasileñas. Además de describir las diferentes etapas del proceso de investigación, el artículo detalla las estrategias multimétodos que viabilizaron una buena retención amostral (72% a los 6 meses y 62% a los 12 meses), bien como la validad de los datos, decorrentes de la inserción ecológica y triangulación de los datos. El análisis de desgaste reveló sólo unas pocas diferencias entre los jóvenes retenidos versus perdidos en el seguimiento de los indicadores demográficos y psicosociales. El examen de las razones del desgaste proporciona información que puede utilizarse en investigaciones futuras de desarrollo en contextos atípicos. Por último, se argumenta que un estudio de esta naturaleza puede tener efectos positivos en el sistema de protección de los derechos y, en consecuencia, sobre la red de protección de los participantes.

Coparenting relationship trajectories: Marital violence linked to change and variability after separation.

Associations between marital intimate partner violence (IPV) and postseparation coparenting relationship trajectories were examined among 135 mothers who participated in 5 interviews at 3-month intervals in the year following their divorce filing. Growth curve analysis was conducted to assess change and variability in coparenting dimensions (i.e., conflict, support, communication about child rearing, and harassment) in the overall sample and by type of IPV. In the overall sample, coparenting conflict, communication about child rearing, and harassment decreased across the year following separation. However, coparenting relationships differed considerably based on marital IPV experiences. At Time 1, mothers in relationships with coercive controlling violence (CCV) reported higher levels of harassment and conflict, and lower levels of support and communication about coparenting, than mothers with situational couple violence (SCV) or no violence (NV). Furthermore, coparenting relationship trajectories differed significantly by IPV group, with mothers who experienced CCV showing more variability in conflict and harassment, and more marked changes in conflict, support, and harassment. Despite many similarities, mothers with SCV showed higher initial levels of harassment compared to mothers with NV. Findings can support family court and social service professionals' efforts to individualize interventions with divorcing parents based on IPV experiences. In cases of CCV, for example, attention to heightened control dynamics in the immediate separation period remain critical but the persistent volatility across the first year suggests the potential for chronic stress. With SCV, practitioners may be able to capitalize on parents' reasonable levels of communication and steady coparenting support. (PsycINFO Database Record

Validation of the SCOFF questionnaire for screening of eating disorders among Mexican university students.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the criterion validity and diagnostic utility of the SCOFF, a brief eating disorder (ED) screening instrument, in a Mexican sample. METHODS: The study was conducted in two phases in 2012. Phase I involved the administration of self-report measures [the SCOFF and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2, (EDI-2)] to 1057 students aged 17-56 years (M age = 21.0, SD = 3.4; 67 % female) from three colleges at the Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Mexico. In Phase II, a random subsample of these students (n = 104) participated in the eating disorder examination, a structured interview that yields ED diagnoses. Analyses were conducted to evaluate the SCOFF's criterion validity by examining (a) correlations between scores on the SCOFF and the EDI-2 and (b) the SCOFF's ability to differentiate diagnosed ED cases and non-cases. RESULTS: EDI-2 subscales showed high correlations with the SCOFF scores proving initial evidence of criterion validity. A score of two points on the SCOFF optimized the sensitivity (78 %) and specificity (84 %). With this cutoff, the SCOFF correctly classified over half the cases (PPV = 58 %) and screened out the majority of non-cases (NPV = 93 %) providing further evidence of criterion validity. Analyses were repeated separately for men and women, yielding gender-specific information on the SCOFF's performance. CONCLUSIONS: Taken as a whole, results indicated that the SCOFF can be a useful tool for identifying Mexican university students who are at risk of eating disorders.

Focus on Methodology: Beyond paper and pencil: Conducting computer-assisted data collection with adolescents in group settings.

Computer-assisted data collection offers advantages over traditional paper and pencil measures; however, little guidance is available regarding the logistics of conducting computer-assisted data collection with adolescents in group settings. To address this gap, we draw on our experiences conducting a multi-site longitudinal study of adolescent development. Structured questionnaires programmed on laptop computers using Audio Computer Assisted Self-Interviewing (ACASI) were administered to groups of adolescents in community-based and afterschool programs. Although implementing ACASI required additional work before entering the field, we benefited from reduced data processing time, high data quality, and high levels of youth motivation. Preliminary findings from an ethnically diverse sample of 265 youth indicate favorable perceptions of using ACASI. Using our experiences as a case study, we provide recommendations on selecting an appropriate data collection device (including hardware and software), preparing and testing the ACASI, conducting data collection in the field, and managing data.

Divorcing Mothers' Use of Protective Strategies: Differences Over Time and by Violence Experience.

OBJECTIVE: The current study considered protective strategy use at various points in time for divorcing mothers with a range of marital violence experiences (including no history of violence and different types of violence). METHOD: Divorcing mothers (N = 170) from one Midwestern county participated in two in-person interviews that included structured assessments of intimate partner violence (IPV) during the last year of marriage and use of protective strategies at three time points - last year of marriage and at separation (both assessed at Time 1) and since the first interview (at a three month follow-up). RESULTS: Divorcing mothers, regardless of marital violence experience, used an array of private and public protective strategies during the last year of marriage, at separation, and at the three-month follow up interview. In general, mothers who experienced coercive controlling violence reported using more protective strategies than mothers who experienced situational couple violence or no violence. Strategy use peaked at separation with an increase in public strategy use. CONCLUSIONS: All divorcing mothers use a range of active coping strategies over time, yet findings emphasize the importance of making distinctions between types of IPV so that divorcing mothers receive individualized resources and support that best meet their needs and minimize potentials risks and losses as they navigate the divorce process.

Marital violence and coparenting quality after separation.

Research has identified multiple predictors of coparenting quality, but few studies have investigated how intimate partner violence (IPV) affects divorcing couples' coparenting relationships. We addressed this question in a sample of 154 mothers with different marital IPV experiences. Mothers were recruited within 4 months of a divorce filing and completed two interviews 3 months apart. At Time 1, mothers reported on violence and coercive control during marriage, and postseparation behavioral (e.g., parental communication), emotional (e.g., anger), and intrusion (e.g., harassment) dynamics; at Time 2, they reported on coparenting quality (i.e., levels of support and conflict). In the overall sample, divorce and violence variables independently predicted coparenting quality. Mothers were then classified into three groups: no violence (NV; n = 74), situational couple violence (SCV; n = 46), or coercive controlling violence (CCV; n = 34). Of the 3, coparenting quality was lowest in the CCV group. While the SCV group was similar to the NV group on most divorce-related variables, the CCV group reported more hostility at separation and placed less importance on father-child relationships. Finally, patterns of association between study variables and coparenting quality showed some parallels between the SCV and NV groups. For CCV, postseparation harassment and fear were negatively associated with coparenting quality. Findings contribute to understanding predictors of coparenting quality and support the need for individualized assessments of divorce cases with attention to IPV dynamics.

"He Could Scare Me Without Laying a Hand on Me": Mothers' Experiences of Nonviolent Coercive Control During Marriage and After Separation.

Studies demonstrate the negative effects of violent coercive control but few examine coercive control without violence. This study describes the characteristics of nonviolent coercive control among 8 divorcing mothers and compares them with 47 mothers who experienced violent coercive control or no violence/no control. Mothers with nonviolent coercive control reported more coping strategies, risk, harassment, and perceived threat than mothers with no violence/no control; similar levels of fear and control during marriage as mothers with violent coercive control; and more postseparation fear than both groups. Findings highlight the need to include nonviolent coercive control in screening methods and research measures.

Exploring Variations Within Situational Couple Violence and Comparisons With Coercive Controlling Violence and No Violence/No Control.

We examined variations within situational couple violence among 23 divorcing mothers and compared them with mothers with coercive controlling violence and no violence/no control. Situational couple violence had great variability in frequency and severity of violence, fear, harassment, and protective strategies. In some cases, situational couple violence was frequent and severe and resembled coercive controlling violence in its consequences. The dynamics of fear and harassment in situational couple violence and in the divorce process in general warrant attention. Finally, mothers reported mental health symptoms that did not differ by group, which is likely due to the stresses of divorce.

Factors Correlated to Protective and Risk Dietary Patterns in Immigrant Latino Mothers in Non-metropolitan Rural Communities.

Immigrant Latinos face conditions which over time negatively impact their nutritional behaviors and health outcomes. Our objective was to evaluate associations between environmental and lifestyle factors and both protective dietary patterns (e.g., intake of fruits and vegetables) and harmful dietary patterns (e.g., consumption of salty snacks and fast food). Surveys were individually and orally administered to 105 foreign-born Latina mothers living in rural locations in a Midwestern state. Principal component analysis created composite variables for each construct and Spearman correlations were conducted to determine associations. Protective dietary patterns were positively associated with access to food and information (ρs = 0.21) and language acculturation (ρs = 0.24), and negatively associated with family challenges (ρs = -0.31). Food insecurity was negatively associated with harmful dietary patterns (ρs = -0.24). Findings suggest that rural Latino dietary interventions should be complemented with comprehensive strategies addressing environmental and lifestyle factors across ecological domains.

Heterosexual transmission of HIV in the Dominican Republic: gendered indicators are associated with disparities in condom use.

BACKGROUND: Gendered dynamics in heterosexual relationships compromise women's self-efficacy and increase their vulnerability to acquiring HIV. This study examines the impact of socioeconomic determinants, media exposure, and sexual expectations on sexual behaviors of men and women in the Dominican Republic (DR). METHODS: We analyzed cross-sectional data from 51,018 adults in the Dominican Republic age 15 to 45 years collected by the Demographics and Health Survey (DHS) in 2007. Measures included demographic and socioeconomic indicators, social exposures, sexual expectations and sexual behaviors. Logistic regression models explored gender differences in condom use. RESULTS: Study findings indicated that women were less likely to use a condom at last intercourse than men (odds ratio [OR] = 0.29; 95 % CI = 0.27, 0.31). Among men, secondary (OR = 1.43; 95 % CI = 1.16, 1.76) and higher education (OR = 1.58; 95 % CI = 1.25, 2.00), being in the richest quintile (OR = 1.25; 95 % CI = 1.07, 1.47), and living in a female-headed household (OR = 1.13; 95 % CI 1.03, 1.23) increased the likelihood of condom use. Compared to never married men, currently and formerly married men were less likely to use condoms (OR = 0.03; 95 % CI = 0.03, 0.04 and OR = 0.67; 95 % CI = 0.60, 0.75, respectively). The odds of condom use increased for young women 15-19 years old in comparison with women age 30-34 years, but decreased as they grew older. For women, being in the richer quintile (OR = 1.28; 95 % CI = 1.06, 1.54), living in a female-headed household (OR = 1.26; 1.12, 1.41), and having good access to media (OR = 1.24; 95 % CI = 1.12, 1.42) increased the likelihood of condom use. Being currently married or formerly married and living in rural areas decreased such likelihood among women. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings provide evidence that, in the DHS, socioeconomic and cultural differences between men and women affects condom use. Efforts to reduce HIV transmission within heterosexual relationships in the DR call for tailored, gender-specific interventions that take into account gender differences of power and sexual behaviors.

Toward a Standard Approach to Operationalizing Coercive Control and Classifying Violence Types.

Coercive control is central to distinguishing between Johnson's (2008) 2 main types of intimate partner violence: (a) coercive controlling violence and (b) situational couple violence. Approaches to assessing coercive control, however, have been inconsistent. Using data from 2 projects involving divorcing mothers (N = 190), the authors compared common analytic strategies for operationalizing coercive control and classifying types of violence. The results establish advantages to measuring coercive control in terms of frequency versus number of tactics, illustrate the use of both hierarchical and k-means clustering methods to identify patterns of coercive control and evaluate clustering solutions, and offer a suggested cutoff for classifying violence types in general samples of separated women using the Dominance-Isolation subscale of the widely used Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory (Tolman, 1992). Finally, the authors demonstrate associations between types of violence and theoretically relevant variables, including frequency and severity of violence, harassment and violence after separation, fear, and perceived threat.