ABSTRACT
GPR61 is an orphan GPCR related to biogenic amine receptors. Its association with phenotypes relating to appetite makes it of interest as a druggable target to treat disorders of metabolism and body weight, such as obesity and cachexia. To date, the lack of structural information or a known biological ligand or tool compound has hindered comprehensive efforts to study GPR61 structure and function. Here, we report a structural characterization of GPR61, in both its active-like complex with heterotrimeric G protein and in its inactive state. Moreover, we report the discovery of a potent and selective small-molecule inverse agonist against GPR61 and structural elucidation of its allosteric binding site and mode of action. These findings offer mechanistic insights into an orphan GPCR while providing both a structural framework and tool compound to support further studies of GPR61 function and modulation.
Subject(s)
Drug Inverse Agonism , GTP-Binding Proteins , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled , Allosteric Site , Appetite , Binding Sites , GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Humans , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonistsABSTRACT
Lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) is a serine hydrolase that hydrolyzes cholesteryl ester (CE) and TGs delivered to the lysosomes into free cholesterol and fatty acids. LAL deficiency due to mutations in the LAL gene (LIPA) results in accumulation of TGs and cholesterol esters in various tissues of the body leading to pathological conditions such as Wolman's disease and CE storage disease (CESD). Here, we present the first crystal structure of recombinant human LAL (HLAL) to 2.6 Å resolution in its closed form. The crystal structure was enabled by mutating three of the six potential glycosylation sites. The overall structure of HLAL closely resembles that of the evolutionarily related human gastric lipase (HGL). It consists of a core domain belonging to the classical α/ß hydrolase-fold family with a classical catalytic triad (Ser-153, His-353, Asp-324), an oxyanion hole, and a "cap" domain, which regulates substrate entry to the catalytic site. Most significant structural differences between HLAL and HGL exist at the lid region. Deletion of the short helix, 238NLCFLLC244, at the lid region implied a possible role in regulating the highly hydrophobic substrate binding site from self-oligomerization during interfacial activation. We also performed molecular dynamic simulations of dog gastric lipase (lid-open form) and HLAL to gain insights and speculated a possible role of the human mutant, H274Y, leading to CESD.
Subject(s)
Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease/enzymology , Sterol Esterase/chemistry , Sterol Esterase/metabolism , Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease/genetics , Crystallography, X-Ray , Glycosylation , Humans , Models, Molecular , Mutation , Protein Domains , Sterol Esterase/geneticsABSTRACT
Optimization of the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of a series of activators of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is described. Derivatives of the previously described 5-aryl-indole-3-carboxylic acid clinical candidate (1) were examined with the goal of reducing glucuronidation rate and minimizing renal excretion. Compounds 10 (PF-06679142) and 14 (PF-06685249) exhibited robust activation of AMPK in rat kidneys as well as desirable oral absorption, low plasma clearance, and negligible renal clearance in preclinical species. A correlation of in vivo renal clearance in rats with in vitro uptake by human and rat renal organic anion transporters (human OAT/rat Oat) was identified. Variation of polar functional groups was critical to mitigate active renal clearance mediated by the Oat3 transporter. Modification of either the 6-chloroindole core to a 4,6-difluoroindole or the 5-phenyl substituent to a substituted 5-(3-pyridyl) group provided improved metabolic stability while minimizing propensity for active transport by OAT3.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/drug effects , Enzyme Activators/chemical synthesis , Enzyme Activators/pharmacology , Indoles/chemical synthesis , Indoles/pharmacology , Animals , Enzyme Activation/drug effects , Enzyme Activators/pharmacokinetics , Humans , Indoles/pharmacokinetics , Intestinal Absorption , Kidney/drug effects , Kidney/enzymology , Male , Models, Molecular , Organic Anion Transporters, Sodium-Independent/metabolism , Rats , Rats, Wistar , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
Protein-ligand interactions can be evaluated by a number of different biophysical methods. Here we describe some of the experimental methods that we have used to generate AMPK protein reagents and characterize its interactions with direct synthetic activators. Recombinant heterotrimeric AMPK complexes were generated using standard molecular biology methods by expression either in insect cells via infection with three different viruses or more routinely in Escherichia coli with a tricistronic expression vector. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange (HDX) coupled with mass spectrometry was used to probe protein conformational changes and potential binding sites of activators on AMPK. X-ray crystallographic studies were carried out on crystals of AMPK with bound ligands to reveal detailed molecular interactions formed by AMPK activators at near-atomic resolution. In order to gain insights into the mechanism of enzyme activation and to probe the effects of AMPK activators on kinetic parameters such as Michaelis-Menten constant (K m ) or maximal reaction velocity (V max), we performed classical enzyme kinetic studies using radioactive 33P-ATP-based filter assay. Equilibrium dissociation constants (K D ) and on and off rates of ligand binding were obtained by application of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/chemistry , Deuterium Exchange Measurement/methods , Enzyme Activators/chemistry , Surface Plasmon Resonance/methods , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/isolation & purification , Animals , Binding Sites , Crystallography, X-Ray , Deuterium Exchange Measurement/instrumentation , Enzyme Activation , Enzyme Assays/instrumentation , Enzyme Assays/methods , Kinetics , Ligands , Mass Spectrometry/instrumentation , Mass Spectrometry/methods , Molecular Docking Simulation , Protein Binding , Protein Structure, Quaternary , Recombinant Proteins/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins/isolation & purification , Sf9 Cells , Surface Plasmon Resonance/instrumentationABSTRACT
Diabetic nephropathy remains an area of high unmet medical need, with current therapies that slow down, but do not prevent, the progression of disease. A reduced phosphorylation state of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has been correlated with diminished kidney function in both humans and animal models of renal disease. Here, we describe the identification of novel, potent, small molecule activators of AMPK that selectively activate AMPK heterotrimers containing the ß1 subunit. After confirming that human and rodent kidney predominately express AMPK ß1, we explore the effects of pharmacological activation of AMPK in the ZSF1 rat model of diabetic nephropathy. Chronic administration of these direct activators elevates the phosphorylation of AMPK in the kidney, without impacting blood glucose levels, and reduces the progression of proteinuria to a greater degree than the current standard of care, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor ramipril. Further analyses of urine biomarkers and kidney tissue gene expression reveal AMPK activation leads to the modulation of multiple pathways implicated in kidney injury, including cellular hypertrophy, fibrosis, and oxidative stress. These results support the need for further investigation into the potential beneficial effects of AMPK activation in kidney disease.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Aminopyridines/pharmacology , Diabetic Nephropathies/drug therapy , Enzyme Activators/pharmacology , Indoles/pharmacology , Kidney/drug effects , Aminopyridines/therapeutic use , Animals , Cell Size , Diabetic Nephropathies/metabolism , Diabetic Nephropathies/pathology , Enzyme Activation , Fibrosis , Humans , Indoles/therapeutic use , Isoenzymes/metabolism , Kidney/metabolism , Kidney/pathology , Kidney Function Tests , Macaca fascicularis , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Oxidative Stress , Phosphorylation , Proteinuria/drug therapy , Proteinuria/metabolism , Rats , Species SpecificityABSTRACT
Crystals of phosphorylated JAK1 kinase domain were initially generated in complex with nucleotide (ADP) and magnesium. The tightly bound Mg2+-ADP at the ATP-binding site proved recalcitrant to ligand displacement. Addition of a molar excess of EDTA helped to dislodge the divalent metal ion, promoting the release of ADP and allowing facile exchange with ATP-competitive small-molecule ligands. Many kinases require the presence of a stabilizing ligand in the ATP site for crystallization. This procedure could be useful for developing co-crystallization systems with an exchangeable ligand to enable structure-based drug design of other protein kinases.
Subject(s)
Adenosine Diphosphate/chemistry , Adenosine Triphosphate/chemistry , Crystallization/methods , Edetic Acid/chemistry , Janus Kinase 1/chemistry , Magnesium/chemistry , Adenosine Diphosphate/metabolism , Adenosine Triphosphate/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Baculoviridae/genetics , Baculoviridae/metabolism , Binding Sites , Cations, Divalent , Cloning, Molecular , Crystallography, X-Ray , Gene Expression , Humans , Janus Kinase 1/genetics , Janus Kinase 1/metabolism , Magnesium/metabolism , Models, Molecular , Plasmids/chemistry , Plasmids/metabolism , Protein Binding , Protein Conformation, alpha-Helical , Protein Conformation, beta-Strand , Protein Interaction Domains and Motifs , Recombinant Proteins/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Sf9 Cells , SpodopteraABSTRACT
Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a protein kinase involved in maintaining energy homeostasis within cells. On the basis of human genetic association data, AMPK activators were pursued for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy. Identification of an indazole amide high throughput screening (HTS) hit followed by truncation to its minimal pharmacophore provided an indazole acid lead compound. Optimization of the core and aryl appendage improved oral absorption and culminated in the identification of indole acid, PF-06409577 (7). Compound 7 was advanced to first-in-human trials for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Diabetic Nephropathies/drug therapy , Enzyme Activators/chemistry , Indoles/chemistry , Administration, Oral , Adsorption , Animals , Crystallography, X-Ray , Dogs , Enzyme Activators/chemical synthesis , Enzyme Activators/pharmacokinetics , Enzyme Activators/pharmacology , High-Throughput Screening Assays , Humans , Indazoles/chemical synthesis , Indazoles/chemistry , Indazoles/pharmacology , Indoles/chemical synthesis , Indoles/pharmacokinetics , Indoles/pharmacology , Injections, Intravenous , Macaca fascicularis , Male , Models, Molecular , Protein Conformation , RatsABSTRACT
Loss of LIPA activity leads to diseases such as Wolman's Disease and Cholesterol Ester Storage Disease. While it is possible to measure defects in LIPA protein levels, it is difficult to directly measure LIPA activity in cells. In order to measure LIPA activity directly we developed a LIPA specific activity based probe. LIPA is heavily glycosylated although it is unclear how glycosylation affects LIPA activity or function. Our probe is specific for a glycosylated form of LIPA in cells, although it labels purified LIPA regardless of glycosylation.
Subject(s)
Molecular Probes/analysis , Molecular Probes/metabolism , Sterol Esterase/chemistry , Sterol Esterase/metabolism , Glycosylation , Humans , Molecular Docking Simulation , Molecular Probes/chemical synthesis , Molecular Probes/chemistry , Molecular StructureABSTRACT
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that serves as a pleotropic regulator of whole body energy homoeostasis. AMPK exists as a heterotrimeric complex, composed of a catalytic subunit (α) and two regulatory subunits (ß and γ), each present as multiple isoforms. In the present study, we compared the enzyme kinetics and allosteric modulation of six recombinant AMPK isoforms, α1ß1γ1, α1ß2γ1, α1ß2γ3, α2ß1γ1, α2ß2γ1 and α2ß2γ3 using known activators, A769662 and AMP. The α1-containing complexes exhibited higher specific activities and lower Km values for a widely used peptide substrate (SAMS) compared with α2-complexes. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based direct binding measurements revealed biphasic binding modes with two distinct equilibrium binding constants for AMP, ADP and ATP across all isoforms tested. The α2-complexes were â¼25-fold more sensitive than α1-complexes to dephosphorylation of a critical threonine on their activation loop (pThr(172/174)). However, α2-complexes were more readily activated by AMP than α1-complexes. Compared with ß1-containing heterotrimers, ß2-containing AMPK isoforms are less sensitive to activation by A769662, a synthetic activator. These data demonstrate that ligand induced activation of AMPK isoforms may vary significantly based on their AMPK subunit composition. Our studies provide insights for the design of isoform-selective AMPK activators for the treatment of metabolic diseases.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/chemistry , Adenosine Monophosphate/chemistry , Allosteric Regulation , Biphenyl Compounds , Enzyme Activation , Enzyme Activators/chemistry , Enzyme Assays , Humans , Isoenzymes/chemistry , Kinetics , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Protein Subunits/chemistry , Pyrones/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins/chemistry , Thiophenes/chemistryABSTRACT
Lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) is a serine hydrolase which hydrolyzes cholesteryl ester and triglycerides delivered to the lysosomes into free cholesterol and free fatty acids. Mutations in the LAL gene (LIPA) result in accumulation of triglycerides and cholesterol esters in various tissues of the body, leading to pathological conditions such as Wolman's disease (WD) and cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD). CESD patients homozygous for His295Tyr (H295Y) mutation have less than 5% of normal LAL activity. To shed light on the molecular basis for this loss-of-function phenotype, we have generated the recombinant H295Y enzyme and studied its biophysical and biochemical properties. No significant differences were observed in the expression levels or glycosylation patterns between the mutant and the wild type LAL. However, the H295Y mutant displayed only residual enzymatic activity (<5%) compared to the wild type. While wild type LAL is mostly a monomer at pH 5.0, the vast majority H295Y exists as a high molecular soluble aggregate. Besides, the H295Y mutant has a 20°C lower melting temperature compared to the wild type. Transient expression studies in WD fibroblasts showed that mutation of His295 to other amino acids resulted in a significant loss of enzymatic activity. A homology model of LAL revealed that His295 is located on an α-helix of the cap domain and could be important for tethering it to its core domain. The observed loss-of-function phenotype in CESD patients might arise from a combination of protein destabilization and the shift to a non-functional soluble aggregate.
Subject(s)
Lysosomes/enzymology , Sterol Esterase/genetics , Wolman Disease/enzymology , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Baculoviridae/genetics , Baculoviridae/metabolism , Cholesterol Esters/chemistry , Cholesterol Esters/metabolism , Cloning, Molecular , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Fibroblasts/pathology , Gene Expression , Glycosylation , Humans , Kinetics , Lipid Metabolism , Lysosomes/pathology , Models, Molecular , Molecular Sequence Data , Mutation , Plasmids/chemistry , Plasmids/metabolism , Protein Aggregates , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/isolation & purification , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism , Sf9 Cells , Spodoptera , Sterol Esterase/isolation & purification , Sterol Esterase/metabolism , Wolman Disease/genetics , Wolman Disease/pathologyABSTRACT
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a principal metabolic regulator affecting growth and response to cellular stress. Comprised of catalytic and regulatory subunits, each present in multiple forms, AMPK is best described as a family of related enzymes. In recent years, AMPK has emerged as a desirable target for modulation of numerous diseases, yet clinical therapies remain elusive. Challenges result, in part, from an incomplete understanding of the structure and function of full-length heterotrimeric complexes. In this work, we provide the full-length structure of the widely expressed α1ß1γ1 isoform of mammalian AMPK, along with detailed kinetic and biophysical characterization. We characterize binding of the broadly studied synthetic activator A769662 and its analogs. Our studies follow on the heels of the recent disclosure of the α2ß1γ1 structure and provide insight into the distinct molecular mechanisms of AMPK regulation by AMP and A769662.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/chemistry , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/physiology , Enzyme Activation/physiology , Models, Molecular , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Adenosine Monophosphate/metabolism , Allosteric Site/genetics , Biphenyl Compounds , Drug Delivery Systems , Humans , Kinetics , Ligands , Molecular Structure , Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Biomolecular , Phosphorylation , Protein Conformation , Protein Isoforms/chemistry , Protein Isoforms/metabolism , Protein Isoforms/physiology , Pyrones/metabolism , Structure-Activity Relationship , Surface Plasmon Resonance , Thiophenes/metabolismABSTRACT
ITK (interleukin-2-inducible T-cell kinase) is a critical component of signal transduction in T-cells and has a well-validated role in their proliferation, cytokine release and chemotaxis. ITK is an attractive target for the treatment of T-cell-mediated inflammatory diseases. In the present study we describe the discovery of kinase inhibitors that preferentially bind to an allosteric pocket of ITK. The novel ITK allosteric site was characterized by NMR, surface plasmon resonance, isothermal titration calorimetry, enzymology and X-ray crystallography. Initial screening hits bound to both the allosteric pocket and the ATP site. Successful lead optimization was achieved by improving the contribution of the allosteric component to the overall inhibition. NMR competition experiments demonstrated that the dual-site binders showed higher affinity for the allosteric site compared with the ATP site. Moreover, an optimized inhibitor displayed non-competitive inhibition with respect to ATP as shown by steady-state enzyme kinetics. The activity of the isolated kinase domain and auto-activation of the full-length enzyme were inhibited with similar potency. However, inhibition of the activated full-length enzyme was weaker, presumably because the allosteric site is altered when ITK becomes activated. An optimized lead showed exquisite kinome selectivity and is efficacious in human whole blood and proximal cell-based assays.
Subject(s)
Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors , Adenosine Triphosphate/pharmacology , Allosteric Regulation , Allosteric Site , Crystallization , Crystallography, X-Ray , Humans , Models, Molecular , Protein Conformation/drug effects , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Surface Plasmon ResonanceABSTRACT
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) monitors cellular energy, regulates genes involved in ATP synthesis and consumption, and is allosterically activated by nucleotides and synthetic ligands. Analysis of the intact enzyme with hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry reveals conformational perturbations of AMPK in response to binding of nucleotides, cyclodextrin, and a synthetic small molecule activator, A769662. Results from this analysis clearly show that binding of AMP leads to conformational changes primarily in the γ subunit of AMPK and subtle changes in the α and ß subunits. In contrast, A769662 causes profound conformational changes in the glycogen binding module of the ß subunit and in the kinase domain of the α subunit, suggesting that the molecular binding site of the latter resides between the α and ß subunits. The distinct short- and long-range perturbations induced upon binding of AMP and A769662 suggest fundamentally different molecular mechanisms for activation of AMPK by these two ligands.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/chemistry , Allosteric Regulation , Biphenyl Compounds , Catalytic Domain , Deuterium Exchange Measurement , Enzyme Activation , Enzyme Activators/chemistry , Humans , Models, Molecular , Protein Binding , Protein Structure, Secondary , Pyrones/chemistry , Thiophenes/chemistryABSTRACT
Extracellular stimulation of the B cell receptor or mast cell FcεRI receptor activates a cascade of protein kinases, ultimately leading to antigenic or inflammation immune responses, respectively. Syk is a soluble kinase responsible for transmission of the receptor activation signal from the membrane to cytosolic targets. Control of Syk function is, therefore, critical to the human antigenic and inflammation immune response, and an inhibitor of Syk could provide therapy for autoimmune or inflammation diseases. We report here a novel allosteric Syk inhibitor, X1, that is noncompetitive against ATP (K(i) 4 ± 1 µM) and substrate peptide (K(i) 5 ± 1 µM), and competitive against activation of Syk by its upstream regulatory kinase LynB (K(i) 4 ± 1 µM). The inhibition mechanism was interrogated using a combination of structural, biophysical, and kinetic methods, which suggest the compound inhibits Syk by reinforcing the natural regulatory interactions between the SH2 and kinase domains. This novel mode of inhibition provides a new opportunity to improve the selectivity profile of Syk inhibitors for the development of safer drug candidates.
Subject(s)
Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/chemistry , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/chemistry , Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors , Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/chemistry , Allosteric Regulation , Autoimmune Diseases/drug therapy , Autoimmune Diseases/enzymology , Drug Design , Humans , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Syk Kinase , src Homology DomainsABSTRACT
Inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCs), a crucial enzyme for fatty acid metabolism, has been shown to promote fatty acid oxidation and reduce body fat in animal models. Therefore, ACCs are attractive targets for structure-based inhibitor design, particularly the carboxyltransferase (CT) domain, which is the primary site for inhibitor interaction. We have cloned, expressed, and purified the CT domain of human ACC2 using baculovirus-mediated insect cell expression system. However, attempts to crystallize the human ACC2 CT domain have not been successful in our hands. Hence, we have been using the available crystal structure of yeast CT domain to design human ACC inhibitors. Unfortunately, as the selectivity of the lead series has increased against the full-length human enzyme, the potency against the yeast enzyme has decreased significantly. This loss of potency against the yeast enzyme correlated with a complete lack of binding of the human-specific compounds to crystals of the yeast CT domain. Here, we address this problem by converting nine key active site residues of the yeast CT domain to the corresponding human residues. The resulting humanized yeast ACC-CT (yCT-H9) protein exhibits biochemical and biophysical properties closer to the human CT domain and binding to human specific compounds. We report high resolution crystal structures of yCT-H9 complexed with inhibitors that show a preference for the human CT domain. These structures offer insights that explain the species selectivity of ACC inhibitors and may guide future drug design programs.
Subject(s)
Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase/antagonists & inhibitors , Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase/chemistry , Catalytic Domain , Enzyme Inhibitors/chemistry , Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins/chemistry , Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase/genetics , Animals , Cell Line , Crystallography, X-Ray , Drug Design , Humans , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins/genetics , Species Specificity , Spodoptera , Structural Homology, Protein , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
When the 34 kDa kinase domain of human spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk-KD) was expressed as a C-terminally His-tagged protein in baculovirus-infected Sf-21 insect cells, the purified protein included two forms that migrated slightly differently in SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Intact mass analysis and LC-MS/MS peptide mapping showed that the major and faster-migrating product had the intended amino-acid sequence and 0-6 phosphorylations. This material accounted for about 95% of the purified protein. The minor product was Syk-KD with a 26 amino-acid N-terminal extension. The result suggested the existence of an upstream alternative site for the initiation of translation, and this proved to be an ACG codon derived from the pBacPAK9 vector used to express Syk-KD. The ACG codon was preceded and followed by Kozak-type sequence elements (a purine in the -3 position and a G in the +4 position) that would have enhanced the viability of initiation at ACG. The initiating amino-acid residue was Met for both minor and major products, and both forms of the protein were α-N-acetylated. For the minor product, protein intact mass analysis and peptide mapping both gave results in agreement with the sequence predicted from the DNA. A similar result with the same underlying cause was obtained with insect cell expression of full-length Syk. It appears that similar results are possible whenever this vector is used.
Subject(s)
Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis , Spodoptera/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Baculoviridae/genetics , Base Sequence , Cell Line , Codon, Initiator , Genetic Vectors , Humans , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/chemistry , Molecular Sequence Data , Peptide Mapping , Protein Biosynthesis , Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/biosynthesis , Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/chemistry , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/chemistry , Sequence Analysis, Protein , Spodoptera/genetics , Syk KinaseABSTRACT
Circadian pacemaking requires the orderly synthesis, posttranslational modification, and degradation of clock proteins. In mammals, mutations in casein kinase 1 (CK1) epsilon or delta can alter the circadian period, but the particular functions of the WT isoforms within the pacemaker remain unclear. We selectively targeted WT CK1epsilon and CK1delta using pharmacological inhibitors (PF-4800567 and PF-670462, respectively) alongside genetic knockout and knockdown to reveal that CK1 activity is essential to molecular pacemaking. Moreover, CK1delta is the principal regulator of the clock period: pharmacological inhibition of CK1delta, but not CK1epsilon, significantly lengthened circadian rhythms in locomotor activity in vivo and molecular oscillations in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and peripheral tissue slices in vitro. Period lengthening mediated by CK1delta inhibition was accompanied by nuclear retention of PER2 protein both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, phase mapping of the molecular clockwork in vitro showed that PF-670462 treatment lengthened the period in a phase-specific manner, selectively extending the duration of PER2-mediated transcriptional feedback. These findings suggested that CK1delta inhibition might be effective in increasing the amplitude and synchronization of disrupted circadian oscillators. This was tested using arrhythmic SCN slices derived from Vipr2(-/-) mice, in which PF-670462 treatment transiently restored robust circadian rhythms of PER2::Luc bioluminescence. Moreover, in mice rendered behaviorally arrhythmic by the Vipr2(-/-) mutation or by constant light, daily treatment with PF-670462 elicited robust 24-h activity cycles that persisted throughout treatment. Accordingly, selective pharmacological targeting of the endogenous circadian regulator CK1delta offers an avenue for therapeutic modulation of perturbed circadian behavior.
Subject(s)
Casein Kinase 1 epsilon/antagonists & inhibitors , Casein Kinase Idelta/antagonists & inhibitors , Circadian Rhythm/physiology , Animals , Base Sequence , Casein Kinase 1 epsilon/physiology , Casein Kinase Idelta/deficiency , Casein Kinase Idelta/genetics , Casein Kinase Idelta/physiology , Circadian Rhythm/drug effects , Gene Knockdown Techniques , In Vitro Techniques , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Mice, Transgenic , Period Circadian Proteins/metabolism , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Pyrimidines/pharmacology , RNA, Small Interfering/genetics , Receptors, Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide, Type II/deficiency , Receptors, Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide, Type II/genetics , Suprachiasmatic Nucleus/drug effects , Suprachiasmatic Nucleus/physiologyABSTRACT
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an energy-sensing serine/threonine protein kinase that plays a central role in whole-body energy homeostasis. AMPK is a heterotrimeric enzyme with a catalytic (alpha) subunit and two regulatory (beta and gamma) subunits. The muscle-specific AMPK heterotrimeric complex (alpha2beta2gamma3) is involved in glucose and fat metabolism in skeletal muscle and therefore has emerged as an attractive target for drug development for diabetes and metabolic syndrome. To date, expression of recombinant full-length human AMPK alpha2beta2gamma3 has not been reported. Here we describe the expression, purification and biochemical characterization of functional full-length AMPK alpha2beta2gamma3 heterotrimeric complex using an Escherichia coli expression system. All three subunits of AMPK alpha2beta2gamma3 were transcribed as a single tricistronic transcript driven by the T7 RNA polymerase promoter, allowing spontaneous formation of the heterotrimeric complex in the bacterial cytosol. The self-assembled trimeric complex was purified from the cell lysate by nickel-ion chromatography using the hexahistidine tag fused exclusively at the N-terminus of the alpha 2 domain. The un-assembled beta 2 and gamma 3 domains were removed by extensive washing of the column. Further purification of the heterotrimer was performed using size exclusion chromatography. The final yield of the recombinant AMPK alpha2beta2gamma3 complex was 1.1mg/L culture in shaker flasks. The E. coli expressed enzyme was catalytically inactive after purification, but was activated in vitro by upstream kinases such as CaMKKbeta and LKB1. The kinase activity of activated AMPK alpha2beta2gamma3 complex was significantly enhanced by AMP (an allosteric activator) but not by thienopyridone A-769662, a known small molecule activator of AMPK. Mass spectrometric characterization of recombinant AMPK alpha2beta2gamma3 showed significant heterogeneity before and after activation that could potentially hamper crystallographic studies of this complex.
Subject(s)
AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/physiology , Escherichia coli/metabolism , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/genetics , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Adenosine Monophosphate/metabolism , Biphenyl Compounds , Calcium-Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase Kinase/genetics , Calcium-Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase Kinase/metabolism , Calcium-Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase Kinase/physiology , Catalytic Domain , Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase RIIbeta Subunit/genetics , Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase RIIbeta Subunit/metabolism , Enzyme Activation/drug effects , Escherichia coli/genetics , Homeostasis , Humans , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/physiology , Protein Subunits/genetics , Protein Subunits/metabolism , Pyrones/pharmacology , Recombinant Proteins/isolation & purification , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Thiophenes/pharmacologyABSTRACT
This paper describes the design and synthesis of novel, ATP-competitive Akt inhibitors from an elaborated 3-aminopyrrolidine scaffold. Key findings include the discovery of an initial lead that was modestly selective and medicinal chemistry optimization of that lead to provide more selective analogues. Analysis of the data suggested that highly lipophilic analogues would likely suffer from poor overall properties. Central to the discussion is the concept of optimization of lipophilic efficiency and the ability to balance overall druglike propeties with the careful control of lipophilicity in the lead series. Discovery of the nonracemic amide series and subsequent modification produced an advanced analogue that performed well in advanced preclinical assays, including xenograft tumor growth inhibition studies, and this analogue was nominated for clinical development.
Subject(s)
Adenosine Triphosphate/physiology , Amides/chemical synthesis , Aminoquinolines/chemical synthesis , Antineoplastic Agents/chemical synthesis , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/chemical synthesis , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/antagonists & inhibitors , Amides/pharmacokinetics , Amides/pharmacology , Aminoquinolines/pharmacokinetics , Aminoquinolines/pharmacology , Animals , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacokinetics , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Cell Line, Tumor , Crystallography, X-Ray , Dogs , Mice , Models, Molecular , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacokinetics , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Rats , Stereoisomerism , Structure-Activity Relationship , Xenograft Model Antitumor AssaysABSTRACT
Screening Pfizer's compound library resulted in the identification of weak acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibitors, from which were obtained rACC1 CT-domain co-crystal structures. Utilizing HTS hits and structure-based drug discovery, a more rigid inhibitor was designed and led to the discovery of sub-micromolar, spirochromanone non-specific ACC inhibitors. Low nanomolar, non-specific ACC-isozyme inhibitors that exhibited good rat pharmacokinetics were obtained from this chemotype.