From guidelines to radiology practice: navigating the 2023 ASCO guidelines for advanced gastroesophageal cancer and beyond.

The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) updated the guidelines for the treatment of advanced gastroesophageal (GE) cancer in 2023, signifying a major shift towards targeted therapeutics and precision medicine. This article serves as an imaging-based review of recent developments in the care of patients with GE cancer. We cover the epidemiology, the developing treatment paradigms, and the imaging assessment of GE malignancy. In addition, this review aims to familiarize radiologists with the unique adverse effects pertaining to therapeutics, surgeries, radiation therapies, and associated imaging corollaries. A case-based approach will be used to both explore the efficacy of modern treatments and demonstrate their adverse effects, such as chemotherapy-associated pneumonitis, radiation esophagitis, and anastomotic failure. With this comprehensive exploration of gastroesophageal cancer, radiologists will be equipped with the essential tools to inform the treatment decisions made by medical oncologists, radiation oncologists, and surgical oncologists in the new era of precision medicine.

Rewinding the Clock: Preparing the Next Generation of Radiology Residents for Oral Boards.

The replacement of the ABR in-person oral examination with the DR certifying examination affected approximately 15,000 radiologists, spanning from 2013 to 2027. This decision was motivated by better aligning with the timing of other American Board of Medical Specialty (ABMS) members, more closely reflecting real-world practice of radiology and narrowing training geared towards the trainee's subspecialty preference. However, in retrospect, this change may have subtracted from the quality and value of diagnostic radiology training as a whole with the de-emphasis on competence in general radiology, communication skills, and cognitive reasoning. In this paper, the authors lay out a blueprint necessary in order to rewind the clock of how diagnostic radiology programs can prepare their trainees for the new DR oral examination. Such a change will require substantial redactions affecting all designations, including radiology faculty, education teams, departmental leadership, academic institutions, ACGME, and ABR. The authors believe that implementing these modifications will not only effectively equip radiology candidates for the new DR oral examination but will also augment the significance of radiologists as indispensable members of multidisciplinary teams. The authors also outline the challenges that could emerge from these changes and speculate on the anticipated role of AI in future oral board examinations.

Emergency department imaging utilization post-transcatheter aortic valve replacement: single institution 7-year experience.

PURPOSE: This study aims to highlight presentations, acute findings and imaging phenotypes of patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) within 30 days of a transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). METHODS: A retrospective review of patients diagnosed with aortic valve disease who underwent a TAVR between Jan 2015 and Nov 2021 at a large academic medical center was completed. From an initial 1271 patients, 146 were included based on their presentation to the ED within 30 days post-TAVR procedure. Patient data, including ED presentation details and imaging results, were recorded and de-identified. RESULTS: Of the 146 post-TAVR patients, there were 168 ED visits within 30 days. The median time to ED after TAVR was 12 days. Respiratory symptoms were the most common complaint (27%). Neurological (23%) and cardiovascular symptoms (18%) followed. Cross-sectional imaging was conducted 250 times across visits, with an average of 1.7 scans per patient. CTs were most frequently used, followed by ultrasounds, especially echocardiograms and duplex extremity vasculature ultrasounds. 30.1% of patients had acute findings from imaging. Specific findings included heart failure (5.5%), access site complications (5.5%), pneumonia (5.5%), intracranial pathologies (3.4% for strokes and 0.7% for hematoma), and pleural effusion (3.4%). Echocardiograms and CTA chest were most associated with significant acute findings. CONCLUSION: Our study highlights the vital role of early and accurate imaging in post-TAVR patients within 30 days post-procedure. As transcatheter approaches rise in popularity, emergency radiologists become instrumental in diagnosing common post-procedural presentations. Continued research is essential to devise post-discharge strategies to curtail readmissions and related costs. Proper imaging ensures prompt, effective care, enhancing overall patient outcomes.

3.0-T MR-guided transgluteal in-bore-targeted prostate biopsy under local anesthesia in patients without rectal access: a single-institute experience and review of literature.

PURPOSE: To describe the technique and evaluate the performance of MRI-guided transgluteal in-bore-targeted biopsy of the prostate gland under local anesthesia in patients without rectal access. METHODS: Ten men (mean age, 69 (range 57-86) years) without rectal access underwent 13 MRI-guided transgluteal in-bore-targeted biopsy of the prostate gland under local anesthesia. All patients underwent mp-MRI at our institute prior to biopsy. Three patients had prior US-guided transperineal biopsy which was unsuccessful in one, negative in one, and yielded GG1 (GS6) PCa in one. Procedure time, complications, histopathology result, and subsequent management were recorded. RESULTS: Median interval between rectal surgery and presentation with elevated PSA was 12.5 years (interquartile range (IQR) 25-75, 8-36.5 years). Mean PSA was 11.9 (range, 4.8 -59.0) ng/ml and PSA density was 0.49 (0.05 -3.2) ng/ml/ml. Distribution of PI-RADS v2.0/2.1 scores of the targeted lesions were PI-RADS 5-3; PI-RADS 4-6; and PI-RADS 3-1. Mean lesion size was 1.5 cm (range, 1.0-3.6 cm). Median interval between MRI and biopsy was 5.5 months (IQR 25-75, 1.5-9 months). Mean procedure time was 47.4 min (range, 29-80 min) and the number of cores varied between 3 and 5. Of the 13 biopsies, 4 yielded clinically significant prostate cancer (csPca), with a Gleason score ≥ 7, 1 yielded insignificant prostate cancer (Gleason score = 6), 7 yielded benign prostatic tissue, and one was technically unsuccessful. 3/13 biopsies were repeat biopsies which detected csPCa in 2 out of the 3 patients. None of the patients had biopsy-related complication. Biopsy result changed management to radiation therapy with ADT in 2 patients with the rest on active surveillance. CONCLUSION: MRI-guided transgluteal in-bore-targeted biopsy of the prostate gland under local anesthesia is feasible in patients without rectal access.

Analysis of ChatGPT publications in radiology: Literature so far.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis of the published literature on ChatGPT and radiology in the nine months since its public release, detailing the scope of the work in the short timeframe. METHODS: A systematic literature search was carried out of the MEDLINE, EMBASE databases through August 15, 2023 for articles that were focused on ChatGPT and imaging/radiology. Articles were classified into original research and reviews/perspectives. Quantitative analysis was carried out by two experienced radiologists using objective scoring systems for evaluating original and non-original research. RESULTS: 51 articles were published involving ChatGPT and radiology/imaging dating from 26 Jan 2023 to the last article published on 14 Aug 2023. 23 articles were original research while the rest included reviews/perspectives or brief communications. For quantitative analysis scored by two readers, we included 23 original research and 17 non-original research articles (after excluding 11 letters as responses to previous articles). Mean score for original research was 3.20 out of 5 (across five questions), while mean score for non-original research was 1.17 out of 2 (across six questions). Mean score grading performance of ChatGPT in original research was 3.20 out of five (across two questions). DISCUSSION: While it is early days for ChatGPT and its impact in radiology, there has already been a plethora of articles talking about the multifaceted nature of the tool and how it can impact every aspect of radiology from patient education, pre-authorization, protocol selection, generating differentials, to structuring radiology reports. Most articles show impressive performance of ChatGPT which can only improve with more research and improvements in the tool itself. There have also been several articles which have highlighted the limitations of ChatGPT in its current iteration, which will allow radiologists and researchers to improve these areas.

Assessing appropriate responses to ACR urologic imaging scenarios using ChatGPT and Bard.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has recently become a trending tool and topic regarding productivity especially with publicly available free services such as ChatGPT and Bard. In this report, we investigate if two widely available chatbots chatGPT and Bard, are able to show consistent accurate responses for the best imaging modality for urologic clinical situations and if they are in line with American College of Radiology (ACR) Appropriateness Criteria (AC). All clinical scenarios provided by the ACR were inputted into ChatGPT and Bard with result compared to the ACR AC and recorded. Both chatbots had an appropriate imaging modality rate of of 62% and no significant difference in proportion of correct imaging modality was found overall between the two services (p>0.05). The results of our study found that both ChatGPT and Bard are similar in their ability to suggest the most appropriate imaging modality in a variety of urologic scenarios based on ACR AC criteria. Nonetheless, both chatbots lack consistent accuracy and further development is necessary for implementation in clinical settings. For proper use of these AI services in clinical decision making, further developments are needed to improve the workflow of physicians.

The Undermined ACGME Subcompetency: A Roadmap for Radiology Residency Programs to Foster Residents-as-Educators.

Radiology Residency programs in the United States use a set of six core competencies as laid out by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) to evaluate the foundational skills of every resident. Despite the fact that educational skills are included under the heading of Practice-Based Learning and Improvement in the ACGME guidelines for radiology residents, it is often underappreciated and undervalued, when compared with medical knowledge or patient care. In this paper, the authors lay out the important role of residents-as-educators and how it can be inculcated as part of formal training during residency. They enunciate five pillars for academic programs to build and maintain the pedagogical skills of their radiology residents: Training, Practicing, Providing Feedback, Mentoring, and Changing the Culture. The authors believe that implementing this will holistically benefit radiology residents as well as radiology in building future educators. The authors also delineate the challenges that programs currently face in implementation and ways to overcome them.

Outcomes of Antineoplastic Immunotherapy at a Large Healthcare Organization: Impact of Provider, Race and Socioeconomic Status.

Purpose: Disparities in cancer care delivery remain a pressing health-care crisis within the United States (US). The use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and their management may be a disparity generator that impacts survival. This retrospective study assessed disparities in a cohort of patients with a variety of solid tumors treated with ICIs within a single health-care organization focusing on the impact of race, socioeconomic status (SES) and site of care delivery on survival and the development of severe immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Patients and Methods: Manual chart review was performed on all patients with solid tumors treated with ICIs within a health-care organization from 2012 to 2018. Care delivery was dichotomized as DOP (disease-oriented provider at academic center) and COP (community oncology provider). Primary and secondary outcomes were overall survival (OS) and rates of grade 3-4 irAEs, respectively. Relationships with covariates of interest, including race, socioeconomic status and type of care delivery, were assessed among both outcomes. Results: A total of 1070 eligible patients were identified. Of those, 11.4% were of Black race, 59.7% had either non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) or melanoma and 82.8% had stage IV disease. Patients of Black race and lower SES were more likely to be treated by DOPs (p<0.0001). A superior OS was associated with care delivered by DOPs when compared to COPs (HR 0.68; 95% CI 0.56-0.84; p=0.0002), which was durable after accounting for race, SES, histopathologic diagnosis and disease stage. Melanoma patients experienced higher rates of severe irAEs (HR 2.37; 95% CI 1.42-3.97; p=0.001). Race, SES and site of care delivery were not related to rates of severe irAEs. Conclusion: In a large health-care organization, patients treated with checkpoint inhibitors by DOPs benefited from a significant OS advantage that was durable after controlling for racial and socioeconomic factors, providing evidence that disease-oriented care has the potential to mitigate racial and socioeconomic disparities.

Psychological Safety as a New ACGME Requirement: A Comprehensive All-in-One Guide to Radiology Residency Programs.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: With the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education recently updating their common program requirements to include components of psychological safety as a core principle, radiology training programs and academic radiology institutions will need to evaluate psychological safety within their residency programs and implement practices to sustain a safety culture. This article reviews current literature to present a concise guide for radiology programs on best practices for implementing psychological safety, considering the plethora of literature that is available. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We searched PubMed for published studies evaluating safety culture in medical education and residency. The key words used were Psychological Safety, Education, Radiology, Workplace Culture, and Leadership. RESULTS: Ninety two studies were reviewed that contributed to the topics examined throughout this manuscript, including a brief history of psychological safety, evolving challenges, and a summation of best practices at the institutional, interpersonal, and individual levels that can result in a sustainable psychologically safe culture for radiology residents. CONCLUSION: This article will highlight unique considerations pertinent to a radiology residency program, including suggestions for creating a less stressful environment during case conferences, fostering and supporting residents who are struggling, and inclusive psychological safety practices that also consider non-resident contributors to a residency program, such as attending physician faculty and non-physician radiology technicians.

Radiology Reading Room for the Future: Harnessing the Power of Large Language Models Like ChatGPT.

Radiology has usually been the field of medicine that has been at the forefront of technological advances, often being the first to wholeheartedly embrace them. Whether it's from digitization to cloud side architecture, radiology has led the way for adopting the latest advances. With the advent of large language models (LLMs), especially with the unprecedented explosion of freely available ChatGPT, time is ripe for radiology and radiologists to find novel ways to use the technology to improve their workflow. Towards this, we believe these LLMs have a key role in the radiology reading room not only to expedite processes, simplify mundane and archaic tasks, but also to increase the radiologist's and radiologist trainee's knowledge base at a far faster pace. In this article, we discuss some of the ways we believe ChatGPT, and the likes can be harnessed in the reading room.

Myeloid Sarcoma: A Primer for Radiologists.

ABSTRACT: Myeloid sarcoma (MS) is a rare extramedullary neoplasm that can present in association with acute myeloid leukemia, most commonly in children younger than 15 years. This unique extramedullary malignancy may involve a variety of different organ systems and can present following, preceding, simultaneous with, or in insolation to acute myeloid leukemia. Common areas of extramedullary involvement include soft tissues, bones, lymph nodes, and the peritoneum. Imaging plays a critical role in the diagnosis and management of MS, with commonly used modalities including positron emission tomography-computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, computerized tomography, and ultrasound. The purpose of this review article is to provide radiologists with a comprehensive guide summarizing the relevant imaging and clinical features of MS, with emphasis on the role of imaging in the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of patients with MS. The relevant pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical presentations, and differential diagnosis of MS will be reviewed. The relevance of different imaging modalities in diagnosis, monitoring of treatment response, and assessment of treatment-related complications will also be outlined. Through summarizing these topics, this review article aims to provide radiologists with a guide for understanding the existing knowledge of MS in the literature and the current role of imaging in the management of this unique malignancy.

Emergency department imaging utilization of cancer patients treated with bevacizumab: single-institution 8-year experience.

PURPOSE: This study aims to highlight the presentations, imaging, and clinical outcomes of cancer patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) while receiving bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy. METHODS: Our retrospective study was based on data from a single institution to identify cancer patients who presented acutely to the ED between 2014 and 2021 within 3 months of beginning bevacizumab who subsequently received diagnostic imaging with CT, MRI, ultrasound, and/or nuclear medicine ventilation/perfusion (VQ) scans. Data gathered included presenting symptoms grouped by body system, imaging impressions, and clinical outcomes, including hospitalization and discontinuation of bevacizumab after each ED visit. Imaging examinations and patient charts were reviewed by a team of fellowship-trained radiologists, radiology residents, and medical students. RESULTS: A total of 84 patients who presented to the ED were included for analysis. This included 32 (38.1%) males and 52 (61.9%) females, with a mean age of 61.2 years and an age range of 29-91 years. Neurological symptoms were the most common presenting symptoms, followed by abdominal symptoms and respiratory symptoms. Head imaging with CT and MRI was the most common imaging ordered with 55 total examinations, followed by abdominal imaging with 37 CT abdomen/pelvis (A/P) examinations, and then CT chest imaging with 22 examinations. Imaging revealed a serious adverse drug reaction in 21 (25.0%) patients, disease progression in 19 (22.6%), and no acute imaging findings in 44 (52.4%) patients. Imaging diagnoses were significantly associated with treatment planning, with a positive determination of bevacizumab-related serious adverse reaction on imaging leading to discontinuation of bevacizumab (p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Multimodality imaging was a commonly used assessment tool for cancer patients receiving bevacizumab who presented to the ED. Imaging played a crucial role in diagnosis in these patients, especially of treatment-related serious adverse reactions and disease progression. Positive imaging findings of serious adverse reactions affected patient management including discontinuation of bevacizumab.

Chest CT Findings in Patients with HIV Presenting to the Emergency Department: A Single Institute Experience.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to analyze chest CT imaging findings and relevant clinical factors in patients with HIV presenting to the emergency department (ED). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review was performed to identify patients with HIV who received chest CT imaging evaluation in the acute ED setting. Analyzed patients included adults with a known diagnosis of HIV who presented to the ED at a single tertiary care center between 2004 and 2020 and received chest CT imaging. Chest CT findings were assessed by 2 radiologist readers, and relevant clinical data were gathered. Statistical analysis was performed to determine if imaging and clinical factors demonstrate significant associations with CD4 count, viral load, and antiretroviral therapy status. RESULTS: A total of 113 patients with HIV were identified who presented to the ED and underwent chest CT imaging evaluation (mean age 47 ± 11 years). Frequently detected chest CT findings included infectious pneumonia (24%), malignancy (11%), pleural effusion (17%), pericardial effusion (13%), and pulmonary embolism (4%). CD4 count, viral load, and active retroviral therapy demonstrated statistically significant associations with a number of key imaging and clinical factors, including presence of pneumonia, malignancy, average length of hospital admission, and survival. CONCLUSION: Patients with HIV present with a wide range of imaging findings when presenting in the acute ED setting. CD4 count, viral load, and active retroviral therapy status demonstrate statistically significant associations with multiple key imaging findings and clinical factors. Chest CT plays an integral role in the clinical management of this unique patient population.

Evaluating the Downstream Revenues of a Self-Pay Bi-Parametric Prostate MRI Program.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify downstream healthcare utilization and revenue associated with a self-pay bi-parametric prostate MRI (bpMRI) program. METHODS: Medical records of 592 patients who underwent bpMRI between August 2017 and March 2020 were examined for follow-up clinical activities. These include prostate biopsy, radical prostatectomy, external beam radiation therapy, brachytherapy, androgen deprivation therapy, CT Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis, PET/CT, MRI Pelvis, and Nuclear Medicine Bone Scans. The charges for each clinical activity were derived from the Medicare Physician Fee Schedule to conservatively estimate revenues. This patient population was further divided into four groups: Group A, patients who demonstrated an MRI lesion and underwent prostatectomy; Group B, patients who did not demonstrate lesion but underwent prostatectomy; Group C, patients who demonstrated lesion but did not undergo prostatectomy; and Group D, patients who neither demonstrated lesion nor underwent prostatectomy. Revenues for each group were categorized by Urology, Radiation Oncology and Radiology subspecialties. RESULTS: Conservative estimates yielded $520 of downstream revenue per patient who underwent bpMRI. Group A patients yielded 47% of total revenue ($1974 per patient). Group B patients, the smallest group, yielded $1828 per patient. Group C patients made up the largest group and grossed $398 per patient. Group D demonstrated the lowest per patient revenue of $179. Groups A and B yielded most relative revenue for Urology. Group C yielded most relative revenue for Radiation Oncology, and Group D yielded most relative revenue for Radiology. CONCLUSION: A self-pay bpMRI program has the potential to improve patient access to prostate cancer screening while remaining financial sustainable.

Role of Radiologists in Contract Research Organizations (CROs).

Clinical trials play a vital role in advancing technology and novel therapies in the healthcare world. However, the increasing scale of trials and the complexity of the regulatory approval process is often a barrier for those interested in conducting research. Contract research organizations (CROs) aim to address this problem by offering their infrastructure and expertise to bring a therapy from conception to approval without the need for in-house staff. Clinical trial imaging often plays an essential role in this process, creating a need for radiologists and a unique opportunity to provide irreplaceable value in their ability to interpret and analyze the imaging outcomes of therapies in question. This paper explores the concept of CROs, the crucial role played by radiologists in their operation, and the nature of the CRO - radiologist relationship.

Development and Implementation of Integrated Radiologist-Speech Pathologist Report for Modified Barium Swallow Study: Experience at a Multi-hospital Single Health Care System.

Dysphagia, or a disorder of swallowing, is very common and is reported in 1 out of 25 adults with approximately 1 million new cases per year in the United States alone. This also disproportionately impacts elderly patients, with a prevalence of 17%. Patients with dysphagia may have severe clinical complications such as starvation, dehydration, and airway obstruction- which may further increase mortality. Hence, timely and accurate diagnosis of dysphagia is hence crucial in management considerations. The gold standard for evaluating and diagnosing dysphagia is a modified barium swallow study (MBSS). The study is typically performed as a collaborative effort between a speech language pathologist (SLP) and a radiologist, who bring their individual skill sets to the table. Current MBSS reporting involves separately dictated and interpreted reports from the SLP and radiologist. In this paper, we elucidate our experience in a multi-institutional healthcare system wherein we have devised a single, integrated report for MBSS, which involves collaborative effort between SLP and the radiologist. We weight the advantages and disadvantages of unified reporting, the challenges of implementing it in a large healthcare system, and note how it can help improve efficiency and deliver unified patient care. We hope that this would be a template for other institutions as well as improve standardization of reporting techniques.

A Decade of Success in Melanoma Immunotherapy and Targeted Therapy: What Every Radiologist Should Know.

ABSTRACT: Treatment strategies for malignant melanoma have rapidly evolved over the past decade. Because of its propensity to develop advanced stage and metastatic disease, melanoma has contributed to the majority of mortalities among patients with skin cancer. The development of novel therapeutics such as immunotherapy and targeted molecular therapies has revolutionized the treatment of patients with advanced stage and metastatic malignant melanoma. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, BRAF/MEK inhibitors, and other revolutionary therapies have demonstrated remarkable success in the treatment of this common malignancy. Along with these advancements in systemic therapies, imaging has continued to play a critical role in the diagnosis and follow-up of patients with malignant melanoma. As the use of these novel therapies continues to expand, knowledge of the evolving therapeutic landscape of melanoma is becoming critical for radiologists. In this review, we provide a primer for radiologists outlining the evolution of immunotherapy and targeted therapy in the treatment of melanoma. We discuss the critical role of imaging in evaluation of treatment response, including a summary of current imaging response guidelines. Last, we summarize the essential role of imaging in the evaluation of potential adverse events seen in patients with malignant melanoma undergoing treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Enhancing the value of radiology reports: a primer for residents.

PURPOSE: The radiology report is the primary work product of the diagnostic radiologist. Its quality is a direct reflection of his or her knowledge, experience, and confidence. Certain factors hindering one's ability to deliver a diagnostically accurate and concise report are sometimes unavoidable (e.g., study limitations and insufficient history); however, radiologists who routinely produce deficient reports not only erode their credibility and reputation amongst colleagues, they magnify their risk of litigation. METHODS: This article is directed toward radiology residents to help facilitate the adoption of effective reporting habits. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Up to 92% of referring physicians and 95% of radiologists agree that learning to report should be an "obligatory and well-structured" component of radiology residency education as discussed by Bosmans JM, Weyler JJ, De Schepper AM, and Parizel PM. Unfortunately, this remains the exception rather than the rule. This article is written with the following objectives: (1) to identify strategies that improve the value of radiology reporting, (2) to define the features of a high-quality radiology report, (3) to instill trust and respect from referring clinicians through clear, accurate, and effective communication, and (4) to understand and avoid potential medicolegal ramifications of deficient radiology reports.

Efficacy of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors against Advanced or Metastatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the treatment efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in advanced/metastatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs). MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched to identify studies that provide data on treatment response and/or survival outcomes of advanced/metastatic NEN patients treated with ICIs. The overall response rate (ORR) was pooled using a random-effects model. Meta-regression was performed to explore factors influencing the ORR. Individual patient data (IPD) meta-analysis of survival was performed using stratified Cox regression. Ten studies (464 patients) were included. The overall pooled ORR was 15.5% (95% confidence interval (CI), 9.5-24.3%), and it varied according to the primary site (thoracic, 24.7%; gastro-entero-pancreatic, 9.5%), tumor differentiation (poorly differentiated, 22.7%; well-differentiated, 10.4%), and drug regimen (combination, 25.3%; monotherapy, 10.1%). All these variables significantly influenced the ORR. Tumor differentiation was associated with both overall survival and progression-free survival (hazard ratio of poorly differentiated tumors, 4.2 (95% CI, 2.0-8.7) and 2.6 (95% CI, 1.6-4.4), respectively). Thus, the treatment efficacy of ICIs for advanced/metastatic NENs varied according to primary site, tumor differentiation, and drug regimen. Poorly differentiated NENs showed a better ORR than well-differentiated NENs but had a negative impact on survival.