Enhancing microbial diversity as well as multi-organ health in hind-limb unloaded mice.

During space travel, the gut microbiota is changed which can lead to health-related issues. Previously, we utilized the hind-limb unloaded (HU) mouse, which is an established ground-based in-vivo model of microgravity and observed altered gut microbiota. In this study, we evaluated the beneficial effects of novel bacterial conditioned media in HU mice to understand if they can offset the effects of unloading in the HU mouse model. We aimed to explore the influence of bacterial conditioned media on diversity and quantity of intestinal microbes in HU mice, and investigated the microarchitecture of mice retinas and kidneys to evaluate the potential systemic effects of bacterial conditioned media in HU mice. Four-month-old, male C57/Bl6 mice were separated into groups: including the ground-based control group, the HU group mice fed with vehicle as placebo (HU-placebo mice), and the HU group fed with bacterial conditioned media (HU-CP mice) and kept under controlled environmental conditions for three weeks. Next, mice were sacrificed; gut dissections were conducted, and metagenomic analysis of bacterial species was performed via DNA extraction and 16S rRNA analysis. The results revealed an HU-induced reduction in intestinal microbial diversity, and an increase in pathogenic bacteria dominated by Firmicutes (45%). In contrast, supplementation with bacterial conditioned media for three weeks led to a significant increase in gut microbial diversity with noticeable changes in the OTUs abundance in the HU mice. Additionally, HU-induced muscle weakness and structural abnormalities in the retina and kidney were partially prevented with bacterial conditioned media. Moreover, a greater diversity of several bacteria in the HU-CP was observed including, Bacteriodota, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Actionobacteriota, Verrucomicorbiota, Cyanobacteria, Gemmatimonadota, Acidobacteriota, Chloroflexi, Myxococcota, and others. Prospective research involving molecular mechanistic studies are needed to comprehend the systemic effects of bacterial metabolites conditioned media on experimental animal models under chronic stress.

Drainage Pattern of Craniofacial Veins With Emphasis on its Influence on Facial Reconstruction Procedures.

As the facial transplantation procedures are becoming more popular and frequent in recent years, for repairing facial trauma, variations in the veins of head and neck needs to be reported time and again. This study was undertaken to examine the course and drainage pattern of the facial vein and external jugular vein on this context and emphasize its surgical implications. The authors studied the head and neck region of 50 embalmed cadavers of both sexes to document normal and variant anatomy of facial, retromandibular, and external jugular veins. In 30% of the head and neck regions, different draining pattern of the above-mentioned veins were observed. One of the rare variation discovered was the splitting of the retromandibular vein to embrace the external carotid artery within the parotid gland. The data about variations in the termination of facial vein, retromandibular vein, and external jugular vein, as observed in the present study might be useful in avoiding accidental injury to these vessels during any surgical intervention in the face as well as neck. Level of Evidence: IV.

Suppression of endoplasmic reticulum stress reverses hindlimb unloading-induced hepatic cellular processes in mice.

BACKGROUND: The Hindlimb unloaded mouse, an animal model of simulated microgravity demonstrates significant metabolic and hepatic derangements. However, cellular and molecular mechanisms driving liver dysfunction in Hindlimb unloaded mice are poorly characterized. METHODS: We investigated the possible contribution of dysregulated protein homeostasis by endoplasmic reticulum, endoplasmic reticulum stress, to liver dysfunction during HU. C57BL/6j male mice were grouped into ground-based controls or Hindlimb unloaded groups treated daily with vehicle or 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), a potent inhibitor of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Following three weeks of HU, mice were sacrificed, and liver tissues were dissected for further analysis. RESULTS: Hindlimb unloaded was associated with hepatic atrophy and elevated endoplasmic reticulum stress, which was restored by 4-PBA treatment. The Gene Ontology analysis revealed the downregulation of genes primarily involved in liver metabolic and Wingless-related integration site (WNT) signaling pathways, while those related to cytochrome P450, and liver fibrosis were upregulated. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis revealed downregulation of several genes involved in metabolic pathways following treatment with 4-PBA, induced by HU. CONCLUSIONS: We report several differential and uniquely expressed genes associated with microgravity-induced elevated ER stress and liver injury. Our data has translational potential in unraveling novel molecular targets for pharmaceutical therapies of liver diseases. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our novel findings show a pathogenic role for elevated ER stress in liver injury in microgravity conditions.

Astaxanthin and DHA supplementation ameliorates the proteomic profile of perinatal undernutrition-induced adipose tissue dysfunction in adult life.

Maternal diet is an essential factor that directly and indirectly regulates fetal growth. Exposure to certain environmental conditions substantially impacts an individual's short- and long-term health. Adipose tissue dysfunction is a worldwide chronic disease caused by improper lipid build-up in adipose tissue leading to obesity. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to invent anti-obesity agents. As a keto-carotenoid, Astaxanthin (AsX) has been shown to have preventive effects against problems associated with obesity. A crucial role in the pathogenesis of obesity has been attributed to dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids. Adipose tissue plays a vital role in maintaining overall body homeostasis. Metabolic dysfunction of white adipocytes forms a critical step in the emergence of insulin resistance and related diseases. Here we aim to investigate the effect of AsX and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation on the proteomic profile of perinatal undernutrition-induced adipose tissue dysfunction in adult life using a rat model. The LC-MS/MS quantitative proteomics enabled us to identify differentially expressed proteins in perinatal undernourished but AsX and DHA-supplemented animal models. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD041772.This study explored biological roles, molecular functions of differentially expressed proteins, and pathways related to adipose tissue dysfunction induced by undernutrition and its effective modulation by AsX and DHA.

Sodium fluoride induces skeletal muscle atrophy via changes in mitochondrial and sarcomeric proteomes.

Sodium Fluoride (NaF) can change the expression of skeletal muscle proteins. Since skeletal muscle is rich in mitochondrial and contractile (sarcomeric) proteins, these proteins are sensitive to the effects of NaF, and the changes are dose-and time-dependent. In the current study, we have analysed the effect of high concentrations of NaF (80ppm) on mouse skeletal muscle at two different time points, i.e., 15 days and 60 days. At the end of the experimental time, the animals were sacrificed, skeletal muscles were isolated, and proteins were extracted and subjected to bioinformatic (Mass Spectrometric) analysis. The results were analysed based on changes in different mitochondrial complexes, contractile (sarcomeric) proteins, 26S proteasome, and ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. The results showed that the mitochondrial proteins of complex I, II, III, IV and V were differentially regulated in the groups treated with 80ppm of NaF for 15 days and 60 days. The network analysis indicated more changes in mitochondrial proteins in the group treated with the higher dose for 15 days rather than 60 days. Furthermore, differential expression of (sarcomeric) proteins, downregulation of 26S proteasome subunits, and differential expression in proteins related to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway lead to muscle atrophy. The differential expression might be due to the adaptative mechanism to counteract the deleterious effects of NaF on energy metabolism. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD035014.

Hindlimb unloading induces time-dependent disruption of testicular histology in mice.

Mechanical unloading of the body in the hindlimb unloaded (HU) mice induces pathology in multiple organs, but the effects on testes are poorly characterized. We investigated the histology and Raman spectroscopy of the mouse testes following HU condition. We divided male, c57BL/6j mice into ground-based controls or experimental groups for two and four weeks of HU. The testes tissues were dissected after euthanasia to investigate histological and Raman spectroscopic analysis. We found an HU-induced atrophy of testes irrespective of the time duration (p < 0.05). Histological analysis revealed that the HU induced epithelial thinning, luminal widening, and spermatozoa decline in the seminiferous tubules of the mouse testes. In addition, we found a thickening of the epididymal epithelia and tunica albuginea. These changes were accompanied by a generalized depression in the Raman spectra, indicating an altered concentration and/or orientation of several molecules. We also report reduced signal intensities of hydroxyproline and tryptophan, potentially contributing to testicular pathology during HU. Taken together, our findings indicate that the two or four weeks of HU induce disruption of testicular architecture and molecular phenotypes. Our results may have implications for understanding and/or treating male infertility associated with prolonged bed rest and spaceflight.

Emerging role of caldesmon in cancer: A potential biomarker for colorectal cancer and other cancers.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a devastating disease, mainly because of metastasis. As a result, there is a need to better understand the molecular basis of invasion and metastasis and to identify new biomarkers and therapeutic targets to aid in managing these tumors. The actin cytoskeleton and actin-binding proteins are known to play an important role in the process of cancer metastasis because they control and execute essential steps in cell motility and contractility as well as cell division. Caldesmon (CaD) is an actin-binding protein encoded by the CALD1 gene as multiple transcripts that mainly encode two protein isoforms: High-molecular-weight CaD, expressed in smooth muscle, and low-molecular weight CaD (l-CaD), expressed in nonsmooth muscle cells. According to our comprehensive review of the literature, CaD, particularly l-CaD, plays a key role in the development, metastasis, and resistance to chemoradiotherapy in colorectal, breast, and urinary bladder cancers and gliomas, among other malignancies. CaD is involved in many aspects of the carcinogenic hallmarks, including epithelial mesenchymal transition via transforming growth factor-beta signaling, angiogenesis, resistance to hormonal therapy, and immune evasion. Recent data show that CaD is expressed in tumor cells as well as in stromal cells, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts, where it modulates the tumor microenvironment to favor the tumor. Interestingly, CaD undergoes selective tumor-specific splicing, and the resulting isoforms are generally not expressed in normal tissues, making these transcripts ideal targets for drug design. In this review, we will analyze these features of CaD with a focus on CRC and show how the currently available data qualify CaD as a potential candidate for targeted therapy in addition to its role in the diagnosis and prognosis of cancer.

Mitigating sarcoplasmic reticulum stress limits disuse-induced muscle loss in hindlimb unloaded mice.

Muscle disuse in the hindlimb unloaded (HU) mice causes significant atrophy and weakness. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms driving disuse-muscle atrophy remain elusive. We investigated the potential contribution of proteins dysregulation by sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), a condition called SR stress, to muscle loss during HU. Male, c57BL/6j mice were assigned to ground-based controls or HU groups treated with vehicle or 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), a potent inhibitor of SR stress, once a day for three weeks. We report that the 4-PBA reduced the SR stress and partly reversed the muscle atrophy and weakness in the HU mice. Transcriptome analysis revealed that several genes were switched on (n = 3688) or differentially expressed (n = 1184) due to HU. GO, and KEGG term analysis revealed alterations in pathways associated with the assembly of cilia and microtubules, extracellular matrix proteins regulation, calcium homeostasis, and immune modulation during HU. The muscle restoration with 4-PBA partly reversed these changes along with differential and unique expression of several genes. The analysis of genes among the two comparisons (HU-v vs. control and HU-t vs. HU-v.) shows 841 genes were overlapped between the two comparisons and they may be regulated by 4-PBA. Altogether, our findings suggest that the pharmacological suppression of SR stress may be an effective strategy to prevent disuse-induced muscle weakness and atrophy.

Signature molecular changes in the skeletal muscle of hindlimb unloaded mice.

Hind-limb unloaded (HU) mouse is a well-recognized model of muscle atrophy; however, the molecular changes in the skeletal muscle during unloading are poorly characterized. We have used Raman spectroscopy to evaluate the structure and behavior of signature molecules involved in regulating muscle structural and functional health. The Raman spectroscopic analysis of gastrocnemius muscles was compared between 16-18 weeks old HU c57Bl/6J mice and ground-based controls. The spectra showed that the signals for asparagine and glutamine were reduced in HU mice, possibly indicating increased catabolism. The peaks for hydroxyproline and proline were split, pointing towards molecular breakdown and reduced tendon repair. We also report a consistently increased intensity in> 1300 cm-1 range in the Raman spectra along with a shift towards higher frequencies in the HU mice, indicating activation of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) stress during HU.

A rapid review of recent advances in diagnosis, treatment and vaccination for COVID-19.

COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2, which originated in Wuhan, Hubei province, Central China, in December 2019 and since then has spread rapidly, resulting in a severe pandemic. The infected patient presents with varying non-specific symptoms requiring an accurate and rapid diagnostic tool to detect SARS-CoV-2. This is followed by effective patient isolation and early treatment initiation ranging from supportive therapy to specific drugs such as corticosteroids, antiviral agents, antibiotics, and the recently introduced convalescent plasma. The development of an efficient vaccine has been an on-going challenge by various nations and research companies. A literature search was conducted in early December 2020 in all the major databases such as Medline/PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar search engines. The findings are discussed in three main thematic areas namely diagnostic approaches, therapeutic options, and potential vaccines in various phases of development. Therefore, an effective and economical vaccine remains the only retort to combat COVID-19 successfully to save millions of lives during this pandemic. However, there is a great scope for further research in discovering cost-effective and safer therapeutics, vaccines and strategies to ensure equitable access to COVID-19 prevention and treatment services.

Estrogen-induced hypomethylation and overexpression of YAP1 facilitate breast cancer cell growth and survival.

Increased expression of Yes-associated protein-1 (YAP1) was shown to correlate with reduced survival in breast cancer (BC) patients. However, the exact mechanism of YAP1 regulation in BC cells remains ambiguous. Genomic sequence search showed that the promoter region of the YAP1 gene contains CpG Islands, hence the likelihood of epigenetic regulation by DNA methylation. To address this possibility, the effect of estrogen (17ß estradiol; E2) on YAP1 gene expression and YAP1 promoter methylation status was evaluated in BC cells. The functional consequences of E2 treatment in control and YAP1-silenced BC cells were also investigated. Our data showed that E2 modulates YAP1 expression by hypomethylation of its promoter region via downregulation of DNA methyltransferase 3B (DNMT3B); an effect that seems to facilitate tumor progression in BC cells. Although the effect of E2 on YAP1 expression was estrogen receptor (ER) dependent, E2 treatment also upregulated YAP1 expression in MDA-MB231 and SKBR3 cells, which are known ER-negative BC cell lines but expresses ERα. Functionally, E2 treatment resulted in increased cell proliferation, decreased apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and autophagic flux in MCF7 cells. The knockdown of the YAP1 gene reversed these carcinogenic effects of E2 and inhibited E2-induced autophagy. Lastly, we showed that YAP1 is highly expressed and hypomethylated in human BC tissues and that increased YAP1 expression correlates negatively with DNMT3B expression but strongly associated with ER expression. Our data provide the basis for considering screening of YAP1 expression and its promoter methylation status in the diagnosis and prognosis of BC.

Origin, transmission, diagnosis and management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Coronavirus has emerged as a global health threat due to its accelerated geographic spread over the last two decades. This article reviews the current state of knowledge concerning the origin, transmission, diagnosis and management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Historically, it has caused two pandemics: severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome followed by the present COVID-19 that emerged from China. The virus is believed to be acquired from zoonotic source and spreads through direct and contact transmission. The symptomatic phase manifests with fever, cough and myalgia to severe respiratory failure. The diagnosis is confirmed using reverse transcriptase PCR. Management of COVID-19 is mainly by supportive therapy along with mechanical ventilation in severe cases. Preventive strategies form the major role in reducing the public spread of virus along with successful disease isolation and community containment. Development of a vaccine to eliminate the virus from the host still remains an ongoing challenge.

Functional beta-cells derived from umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stem cells for curing rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic response to injected human umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stem cells (UCBMSCs) among albino rats with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes mellitus. METHODS: Control group (GI; n = 25) rats were fed with standard rat diet. Rats with STZ-induced diabetes mellitus without (GII; n = 25) and with (GIII; n = 25) differentiated human UCBMSCs implantation were the test groups. Rats were sacrificed in Week 11 following implantation. Liver biopsies were sectioned and stained in order to highlight both the presence and function of impregnated cells in the liver tissue. RESULTS: Haematoxylin and eosin-stained sections in GI and GII rats showed normal liver architecture while GIII rats showed presence of cell clusters inside the liver tissue and around the central veins. Cell clusters with blue cytoplasm were present in sections in GIII rats but absent in GI and GII rats, indicating the presence of injected differentiated human UCBMSCs. The anti-human insulin immunostaining of GIII rats showed clusters of cells within the liver parenchyma and around central veins, indicating that these cells were active and secreting insulin. CONCLUSION: UCBMSCs are proficient in differentiating into insulin-producing cells in vivo under specific conditions and, when transplanted into the liver of albino rats with STZ-induced diabetes mellitus, were able to secrete insulin and partially control the status of diabetes mellitus in rats.

Autophagy related markers (Beclin-1 and ATG4B) are strongly expressed in Wilms' tumor and correlate with favorable histology.

BACKGROUND: Wilms' tumor treatment has achieved great success in the last decade. Nevertheless, some cases still fail to respond to the current multimodality therapy. These cases fall mainly in the unfavorable histology group with very few belonging to the favorable histology group. In recent years, autophagy manipulation whether inhibition or stimulation has been shown to affect cancer cell behavior and has emerged as a novel mechanism to improve cancer cell response to currently used therapeutic regimens. OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to investigate the expression of autophagy related markers (ATG4B and Beclin1) in WT, its association with the different clinic-pathological parameters and its impact on patient survival. METHODS: Twenty-one formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) WT specimens were immunohistochemically stained using autophagy related markers; Beclin-1 and ATG4B. All clinical, radiological and follow up data were retrieved from the patient records. RESULTS: All specimens showed positive expression of both Beclin-1 and ATG4B. The staining score for Beclin1 varied between 50 and 300, and its expression was significantly associated with favorable histology (p=0.007). Similarly, ATG4B expression was significantly higher in favorable histology tumors compared to unfavorable histology (p=0.046). A statistically significant positive correlation between Beclin-1 and ATG4B expression was observed. The cumulative disease-free survival in patients with favorable histology was significantly higher compared to patients with unfavorable histology (p=0.0027). CONCLUSIONS: Beclin-1 and ATG4B expression were both found to be statistically significant discriminators of survival. Collectively these findings suggest that the expression of autophagy-related markers is associated with a favorable histology and could predict better survival in these patients.

Sodium fluoride induced skeletal muscle changes: Degradation of proteins and signaling mechanism.

Fluoride is a well-known compound for its usefulness in healing dental caries. Similarly, fluoride is also known for its toxicity to various tissues in animals and humans. It causes skeletal fluorosis leading to osteoporosis of the bones. We hypothesized that when bones are affected by fluoride, the skeletal muscles are also likely to be affected by underlying molecular events involving myogenic differentiation. Murine myoblasts C2C12 were cultured in differentiation media with or without NaF (1 ppm-5 ppm) for four days. The effects of NaF on myoblasts and myotubes when exposed to low (1.5 ppm) and high concentration (5 ppm) were assessed based on the proliferation, alteration in gene expression, ROS production, and production of inflammatory cytokines. Changes based on morphology, multinucleated myotube formation, expression of MyHC1 and signaling pathways were also investigated. Concentrations of NaF tested had no effects on cell viability. NaF at low concentration (1.5 ppm) caused myoblast proliferation and when subjected to myogenic differentiation it induced hypertrophy of the myotubes by activating the IGF-1/AKT pathway. NaF at higher concentration (5 ppm), significantly inhibited myotube formation, increased skeletal muscle catabolism, generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) in C2C12 cells. NaF also enhanced the production of muscle atrophy-related genes, myostatin, and atrogin-1. The data suggest that NaF at low concentration can be used as muscle enhancing factor (hypertrophy), and at higher concentration, it accelerates skeletal muscle atrophy by activating the ubiquitin-proteosome pathway.

A mixed method study to validate a two-way feedback between student and faculty to improve learning of anatomy.

Although the students are subjected to some formative exams throughout the problem based learning units, feedback is not given appropriately and timely. Students want to know and use the reasoning behind judgments and always complain that assessment criteria need to be explained. The aim of this project is to implement a two-way feedback delivery (TWFD), in which both faculty and students have an opportunity to discuss their reflections on learning and examination processes. An Anatomy formative assessment is introduced to 100 students followed by implementation of TWFD. Faculty members provided the students with a structured and timely feedback on their performance. Also, the students reflected on the whole learning process, including real examination experience. The reaction was measured using quantitative and qualitative instruments through a questionnaire, focus group discussion, and semi-structured interviews. Ninety students (90%) participated in the questionnaire with high satisfaction toward implementation of TWFD. Ninety-four percent (n=85) admitted that the time of the session was appropriate. Ninety percent (n=81) of the students demonstrated that the TWFD helped them to identify their strengths and weaknesses. Eighty-five percent (n=77) of the students admitted that TWFD promotes active reflection on the effectiveness of teaching. Most of the students and teachers' comments in the focus group discussions and the interviews supported these results. TWFD seems to be a good approach to implement an effective and timely feedback process between the faculty and the students. Students and the faculty recommended the implementation of this session in different courses and units.

Variants of latissimus dorsi with a perspective on tendon transfer surgery: an anatomic study.

BACKGROUND: The latissimus dorsi (LD) is often used for tendon transfers to treat massive irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears. The operation requires the LD tendon to be mobilized to reduce tension on the tendon. In that respect, any connection between the LD tendon and contiguous muscles may hamper tendon mobility and affect the surgical outcome. The goal of this study was to document the occurrence of connections between the LD and adjacent muscles and nerves. METHODS: We studied the scapular region on 48 embalmed cadavers. The skin and superficial fascia were removed according to Cunningham's manual of dissection, and the muscle was exposed. RESULTS: It was found that the LD and teres major (TM) muscles are connected by muscle fibers in 10% of the cadavers studied. Another vital discovery was that in some cadavers, the LD tendon was penetrated by a nerve. CONCLUSION: Fascial connections between the LD and TM are well known, but these muscle links are comparatively unusual. From the results of this study, one should pay particular attention to muscle links between the LD and TM during dissection of the LD for transfer. It can also be suggested that during transfer surgery, the LD tendon should be cautiously examined for the possibility of a nerve penetrating it.

Effect of sildenafil-induced nitric oxide on the histomorphology of cardiomyocytes in male rats.

INTRODUCTION: Although sildenafil citrate, one of the selective phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) inhibitors, is considered the best treatment for erectile dysfunction, studies have shown that it has also a beneficial effect on a variety of cardiovascular conditions. In spite of reports of a significant protective effect of sildenafil against necrosis in intact hearts, there are also contradictory reports regarding its beneficial effect on the heart. Since there are not enough reports regarding the histomorphological changes in the cardiomyocytes after exposure to sildenafil citrate, the present study was conducted to observe the same along with other biochemical parameters. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adult male albino rats of Wistar strain were used in the present study. The animals were divided into a control group and two experimental groups containing six rats each. The animals were treated with a solution of sildenafil citrate dissolved in distilled water. Histomorphological changes were observed by light microscopy and the levels of nitric oxide (NO) and PDE in the heart were measured by spectrophotometry. RESULTS: It was observed that animals treated with sildenafil citrate showed a highly significant increase in NO and a decrease in PDE level, but the histological architecture of the cardiomyocytes did not show much change other than a slightly elongated and swollen nucleus. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that sildenafil citrate at low dosage is well tolerated by cardiac muscle cells, but as dosage increases, it may become detrimental through its NO and PDE activity.

Variant left testicular artery from the superior polar artery and triple right renal arteries: a case report

Testicular arteries are the branches of the abdominal aorta below the level of origin of renal arteries. They may originate at a higher or a lower level from the aorta. However, when they originate from some other artery, they become surgically significant, since the ligature of the main artery giving rise to the testicular artery might lead to testicular atrophy. The present report is about the origin of the left testicular artery from the superior polar artery, which is a branch directly from the abdominal aorta above the renal artery. With the advent of novel surgical techniques, prior knowledge of rare variation in the testicular arteries becomes significantly important during surgery for renal transplant procedures, as well as for undescended testis or varicocele (AU)

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Unique distribution by the peroneal nerves: a case report.

PURPOSE: Among the branches of common peroneal nerve, the superficial peroneal provides cutaneous innervation to major part of the dorsum of the foot and deep peroneal nerve supplies the skin over the first interdigital cleft region. METHODS: The present rare case was observed during routine dissection of leg for undergraduate students, in a 52-year-old male, formalin fixed cadaver. RESULTS: The superficial peroneal nerve provided solely motor branches to peroneus longus and brevis, whereas cutaneous branches were provided by deep peroneal nerve. In the lower one-third of the leg deep peroneal nerve divided into medial and lateral branches. The medial branch supplied tibialis anterior and the lateral branch supplied skin of medial three and half toes. Moreover, the sural nerve supplied the skin of lateral one and a half toes. CONCLUSION: Awareness of this type of variations in the course of nerves helps to alert the surgeons when there are complaints of atypical or unique pain in that particular region.