Daily Physical Education Linked to Higher Youth Aerobic Fitness Levels: A 4-Year Longitudinal Study.

PURPOSE: Physical education (PE) provides opportunities for youth physical activity during the school day, yet daily PE policies remain low. This study investigated whether daily PE was linked to youth aerobic capacity across a 4-year period in Greenville (South Carolina). METHODS: Youth in grade levels second to eighth at 2 schools providing daily PE and 2 schools that did not provide daily PE participated in the study (N = 466). The 2 schools used as comparisons provided standard PE outlined by South Carolina, which included one 50-minute session per week (elementary) and daily PE for one semester (middle school). Aerobic fitness was measured using the FITNESSGRAM® Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run test (May 2011-2015). Number of Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run laps completed, age, gender, ethnicity, body composition, and school attended were included in multilevel linear regression analyses. RESULTS: Across the sample, aerobic fitness increased with age. Throughout the study, males demonstrated growth in aerobic fitness compared with a slight decline for females (P < .001). Youth participation in daily PE was linked to increases in aerobic fitness compared with youth who did not receive daily PE (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that exposure to daily PE may contribute to increased aerobic fitness in youth.

Parents' Perceptions and Engagement Regarding School-Based Physical Activity Promotion.

PURPOSE: This study examined parents' perceived importance of, and engagement in, school-based physical activity (PA) promotion. DESIGN: A cross-sectional, quantitative survey design was employed. SETTING: The survey was conducted in the United States. SUBJECTS: Using a probability-based panel (AmeriSpeak®), a national sample of 3599 parents was randomly recruited to participate in the survey and 1015 participants (28.2%) completed it. Parents or legal guardians of children enrolled in K-12 during the 2017-2018 school year were eligible to participate. MEASURES: The survey was developed and distributed by a national collaborative for active schools with the support of a national research center. ANALYSIS: Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling and path analysis. RESULTS: The data supported a 6-factor solution encompassing perceived importance of PA before, during, and after school, communication with administrators, and volunteering and participating in school-based PA (CFI = .974, RMSEA = .034, SRMR = .056). Path coefficients from perceived importance of PA before/after school to current (ß = .43; 95%CI[.25, .61]) and future communication with administrators (ß = .40; 95%CI[.23, .55]) were statistically significant, as were coefficients from perceived importance of PA before/after school to past (ß = .60; 95%CI[.35, .83]) and current volunteering/participating in school-based PA (ß = .63; 95%CI[.42, .85]). CONCLUSION: Parents' perceived importance of school-based PA opportunities before and after school warrants emphasis in future research and advocacy.

Identification of Effective Programs to Improve Access to and Use of Trails among Youth from Under-Resourced Communities: A Review.

The primary purpose of this paper is to identify and review studies evaluating the effectiveness of programs to increase access to trails and trails use (physical activity) among youth from under-resourced communities. Three additional goals include identifying: (1) Correlates of physical activity/trail use and features of transportation systems and/or built environment and land use destinations, that may inform and support the planning and implementation of programs to promote trail use among youth, (2) benefits associated with trail use, and (3) barriers to trail use. Under-resourced communities are defined as those lacking sufficient resources (i.e., under-funded). METHODS: A review of the literature was conducted to identify, abstract, and evaluate studies related to programs to promote trail use among youth and youth from under-resourced communities. In anticipation of very few studies being published about this topic, studies were also reviewed to identify correlates of transportation systems and built environment and land use destinations related to increases in physical activity, and benefits of, and barriers to trail use. PUBMED, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Sportdiscus, Annual Reviews, American Trails, and Google Scholar databases were searched using terms including trails, built environment, physical activity, exercise, walking, children, adolescents, and youth to identify studies that potentially related to the purposes for conducting this review. Review methods identified, 5278 studies based on our search terms. A review of study titles, abstracts, and select full article screens determined that 5049 studies did not meet the study inclusion criteria, leaving 221 studies included in this review. RESULTS: No studies were located that evaluated programs designed to promote and increase trail use among youth, including youth from under-resourced communities. Eight studies used longitudinal or quasi-experimental designs to evaluate physical activity and neighborhood characteristics prospectively among adolescent girls (n = 1), the effects of the path or trail development on physical activity behaviors of children, youth, and adults (n = 4), marketing or media campaigns (n = 2), and wayfinding and incremental distance signage (n = 1) to promote increased trail use. Correlates of transportation systems (e.g., trail access, road traffic congestion related to safe active travel, lack of sidewalks, closer proximity to trails, access to transportation), destinations (e.g., park availability and access, park improvements, greenspaces), or both routes and destinations (e.g., perceptions of safety, lighting), were identified. These correlates may support the planning and implementation of programs to increase trail use among youth, or may facilitate the connection of trails or routes to destinations in communities. Barriers to trail use included costs, crime, lack of transportation, lack of role models using trails, and institutional discrimination. CONCLUSIONS: Scientific evidence in support of addressing the underrepresentation of trail use by youth from under-resourced communities is lacking. However, there is a related body of evidence that may inform how to develop programs that support trail use by youth from under-resourced areas. Dedicated, deliberate, and systematic efforts will be required to address research and knowledge gaps, and to evaluate programs and practice related to trail use among youth from low income, often racially or ethnically diverse under-resourced neighborhoods or communities.

Poverty Status Moderates the Relationship between Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Academic Achievement.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of the study was to examine the associations among cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), weight status and academic achievement in youth, and to determine if these relationships are moderated by poverty status. METHODS: The sample included 5th (N = 27,791) and 8th grade (N = 16,047) South Carolina students. Academic achievement was assessed using a state-wide assessment and classified into 2 categories (ie, does not meet/approaches standards vs meets/exceeds standards). CRF was assessed and expressed as Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) or Needs Improvement/Needs-Improvement-Health Risk. Students' demographics and poverty status were reported. Multilevel logistic regression analyses were used to examine the association between CRF, weight status and academic achievement. Interaction terms were introduced into the final models. Analyses were performed separately by grade level and academic subject. RESULTS: The CRF was significantly associated with the odds of meeting/exceeding academic standards after controlling for covariates and adjusting for weight status. The relationship between CRF and academic achievement varied significantly by poverty status. After adjustment for CRF, weight status was not significantly associated with academic achievement. CONCLUSIONS: The odds of achieving academic standards were significantly higher among students achieving CRF HFZ regardless of poverty status. CRF may partially mitigate the adverse effect of poverty on academic achievement.

Pathways to Health: Association Between Trail Use, Weight Status, and Self-Rated Health Among Adults in Greenville County, South Carolina, 2014.

We examined associations between adults' use of a prominent rail-trail and their weight status and self-rated health. In 2014, a random-digit-dial survey of Greenville County, South Carolina, residents (n = 639) was used to collect data on trail use, height and weight, self-rated health, and demographics. Trail users were half as likely to be overweight or obese as trail nonusers (odds ratio [OR] = 0.56; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.33-0.95). Similarly, trail users were significantly more likely to report high self-rated health than were trail nonusers (OR = 1.83; 95% CI, 1.13-2.97). Findings suggest that trail use is associated with healthier weight status and higher self-rated health and supports the development, maintenance, and promotion of trail resources.

Travel to, and use of, twenty-one Michigan trails.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: This study examined trail use among 857 trail users on 21 trails in Michigan from 2008 to 2011 using a valid and reliable intercept survey. RESULTS: Most of the 857 participants traveled to the trail from their home (92.6%), lived within 15 min of the trails (74.8%), and used active transport to travel to the trails 69.7%. The odds of active transport to the trails were greater among those who had not graduated high school (OR=3.49; 95% CI=1.02, 11.99) and high school graduates (OR=7.432; 95% CI=2.02, 27.30) compared to college graduates. Whites and adults also had greater odds of active transport than non-Whites (OR=3.160, 95% CI: 1.65, 6.05), and older adults (OR=1.75; 95% CI: 1.20, 2.54). The majority of respondents (89.7%) reported using trails for recreational purposes. A significantly greater proportion of females (73.3%) compared to males (64.7%) reported using the trail with others. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study might enable health and parks and recreation professionals to better promote physical activity on trails.

Examining the impact of 45 minutes of daily physical education on cognitive ability, fitness performance, and body composition of African American youth.

OBJECT: Increased importance on academic achievement has resulted in many school districts focusing on improved academic performance leading to reductions in physical education time. The purpose was to examine the effects of 45 minutes of daily physical education on the cognitive ability, fitness performance and body composition of African American elementary and middle school youth. METHODS: Participants completing the informed consent in grades 2nd to 8th were included in the study. A pre/posttest design was used with repeated measures analysis of variance. Experimental and control school participants were pretested on the cognitive measures (ie, Fluid Intelligence and Perceptual Speed) and Fitnessgram® physical fitness test items (eg, aerobic capacity, muscular strength and muscular endurance, body composition) in September 2009 and posttested in May 2010. RESULTS: Experimental elementary and middle school participants observed significantly greater improvements compared with control elementary and middle school participants on 7 of 16 fitness and body composition measures and on 8 of 26 cognitive measures. These fitness, body composition, and cognitive improvement differences were more noticeable among elementary and middle school females. CONCLUSIONS: Providing 45 minutes of daily physical education can perhaps increase cognitive ability while increasing fitness and decreasing the prevalence of overweight and obese youth.

Where are youth physically active? A descriptive examination of 45 parks in a southeastern community.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to identify the activity settings used and physical activity (PA) intensity achieved by boys and girls in 45 parks in a southeastern community. METHODS: PA and sedentary behaviors were assessed at all activity settings by gender, race, and PA intensity. Eight activity settings were identified in 45 parks. The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) instrument was used to assess PA during the summers of 2004 through 2008. RESULTS: More boys (n = 1,668; 58%) were observed at the 45 parks than girls (n = 1,184, 42%). Playgrounds were the most frequently used activity setting by both boys and girls. The vast majority of PA observed on the playgrounds was vigorous PA (n = 584; 41%). Playing fields were the second most frequently used activity setting by male and female youth, and 292 (10.3%) of all boys and girls were observed using this activity setting. However, only 18 of the 45 parks (40%) had a playing field. More males (n = 164; 56%) used the playing fields for PA than girls (n = 128; 44%). Most boys and girls were observed participating in vigorous PA (n = 254; 87%) at this activity setting. Observations of seven of the eight activity settings in the 45 parks indicated a greater frequency and percentage of white youth observed in comparison to minorities. CONCLUSIONS: Identifying the patterns of children and teens in community parks will provide investigators with specific objective data to develop user profiles that can perhaps lead to effective PA interventions in these environmental settings.

Demographic characteristics and physical activity behavior of park-visitors versus non-visitors.

To examine physical activity (PA) behaviors among park visitors versus non-visitors by select demographic variables of a large city park. A sample of 251 respondents participated in a random digit dial survey. PA was measured using the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) PA module. The majority of respondents reported meeting PA recommendations (70.5 %) and being park visitors (60.2 %). A greater proportion of adults were park visitors (65.6 %) compared to the proportion of older adults who were park visitors (49.2 %). All persons who identified as being a race other than white and reported meeting the national PA recommendations through vigorous PA were park visitors. Environmental interventions that increase the availability of city parks may impact PA behavior among racial minority groups. There is also an opportunity to promote park usage among older adults.

Associations between sociodemographic characteristics and perceptions of the built environment with the frequency, type, and duration of physical activity among trail users.

INTRODUCTION: Rail trails are elements of the built environment that support the Task Force on Community Preventive Services' recommendation to create, or enhance access to, places for physical activity (PA). The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between sociodemographic characteristics and perceptions of the built environment with the frequency, type, and duration of PA among users of an urban, paved rail trail segment. METHODS: Interviewers conducted intercept surveys with 431 rail trail users and analyzed data by using logistic regression to estimate odds ratios between sociodemographic characteristics and perceptions of the built environment on the frequency, type, and duration of PA performed on the trail. RESULTS: Adults who used the trail in the cool months, traveled to the trail by a motorized vehicle, used the trail with others, and had some graduate school education visited the trail less often. Younger adults, men, whites, and those with some graduate school education were more likely to engage in vigorous activities on the trail. Adults who traveled to the trail by a motorized vehicle spent more time engaged in PA on the trail. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the most frequent users of a rail trail for PA are those who use the trail alone and travel to the trail by bicycle or on foot. Trails are an aspect of the built environment that supports active lifestyles, and future studies should evaluate different types of trails among more diverse populations and locations.

The association of natural elements with physical activity intensity during trail use by older adults.

BACKGROUND: Public health efforts to promote trail use among older adults could be an effective strategy for increasing physical activity among older adults. However, research is needed to better understand factors that influence older adults' use of trails. PURPOSE: To examine the association between variations in natural elements (ie, season, weather, temperature) and older adults' overall trail use and physical activity intensity during trail use. METHODS: A rail-trail in South Carolina was systematically evaluated (2006-2009) using The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities. RESULTS: The majority (74.2%) of the 1053 older trail users observed were walking; 25.9% were observed in vigorous activity. Older adults were most often observed using the trail in the spring (40.1%), sunny weather (76.8%), and moderate temperatures (56.2%). Significant differences in activity type by natural element variables were identified. CONCLUSIONS: When promoting trail use among older adults, natural elements should be considered.

Demographic characteristics and physical activity behaviors in sixteen Michigan parks.

The Building Healthy Communities (BHC) initiative addresses inadequate physical activity in Michigan using a population-based approach to prevent chronic disease. Eighteen local health departments through 2010 received $1,505,179 to plan and implement community-based interventions to increase physical activity among low-income and minority populations. This paper examines park user demographics, compares park user demographics to the demographic characteristics and examines physical activity behaviors of park users in these parks. BHC Park usage was examined from 2008 to 2010 using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC). One sample binomial tests were used to examine if the proportion of male and female park users was different than the proportion of males and females in Michigan and to examine if the proportion of white and other park users was different than the proportion of whites and others in Michigan. A chi-square goodness-of-fit test was used to examine whether the observed proportions for age groups observed using the park differed from the actual proportions for age groups in Michigan. The majority of BHC park users were white. More children were observed than other age groups. Park users were most often observed engaging in walking or vigorous activity rather than sedentary activities. When comparing the proportion of whites (54.7%) and others (42.8%) observed using the parks to the proportion of whites (79%) and others (21%) residing in Michigan, there was a significant difference (P < 0.001) with a greater proportion of whites and smaller proportion of persons of other ethnicities expected to be observed using the parks. This chi square goodness of fit test showed a significant difference in the observed and expected number of persons observed using the trail in each age group (χ(2) = 4,897.707, df = 3, P < 0.001) with a greater number of children (n = 1,939) and teens (n = 1,116) observed than the number of children (n = 828) and teens (n = 305) expected based on 2010 Michigan census data. A greater proportion of non-whites (compared to whites) were observed using the park than would be expected. In Michigan, 60% of blacks, 37% of Hispanics, and 53% of other minority groups do not meet national physical activity recommendations. Perhaps developing additional parks in Michigan can increase physical activity behaviors among minorities.

The association of natural elements and trail use by adults.

We used the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities to examine the association between variations in natural elements (ie, season, weather, and temperature) and adults' use of a rail-trail in South Carolina (2006-2009). Most (62%) of the 4,468 trail users observed were walkers; 38% were observed participating in vigorous physical activity. Adults were most often observed using the trail during the summer (32%), sunny weather (78%), and moderate temperatures (54%). When promoting trail use among adults, natural elements should be considered.

Trail user demographics, physical activity behaviors, and perceptions of a newly constructed greenway trail.

To better understand and promote physical activity on a newly constructed trail, the present study examined the demographic characteristics and physical activity behaviors of trail users; the demographic characteristics of trail users compared to the demographic profile Greenville County, South Carolina residents; trail users' purpose for using the trail; the distance trail users traveled to access the trail from their homes; channels through which trail users learned about the trail; and trail characteristics liked by trail users. Using a valid and reliable intercept survey, 1,148 trail users were interviewed. Trail users were mostly white (93.1%), male (59.1%) adults (84.2%) who reported using the trail for exercise (91%). Significant associations were identified between trail user demographic characteristics and how trail users learned about the trail and trail characteristics liked by trail users. The findings may contribute to the development of targeted health promotion efforts to promote physical activity on this and similar trails.

User demographics and physical activity behaviors on a newly constructed urban rail/trail conversion.

BACKGROUND: To examine demographic characteristics and physical activity (PA) behaviors of trail users on a newly constructed 2-mile urban rail/trail (ie, abandoned rail line converted to a recreational trail). METHODS: A systematic evaluation process was initiated to monitor PA behaviors using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC). RESULTS: Slightly more males (n=2578, 54%) than females (n=2198, 46%) were observed using the rail/trail since its inception. A significant age group difference (F=16.68, P<.001) was observed among users with the vast majority being adults (n=3317, 69%). Women were 2.2 times more likely than men (95% CI 1.7-3.0) to be sedentary rather than vigorously active adjusted for age and race. Whites were 2.8 times more likely than nonwhites (95% CI 2.4-3.2) to engage in vigorous activity rather than walking, adjusted for age and gender. Rail/trail users resided on average 2.89 miles from the trail. DISCUSSION: The most frequent users of the rail/trail were male, white adults, and observed PA varied for gender and age. More research is needed to better understand differences in patterns of trail use by various population groups.

Using "point of decision" messages to intervene on college students' eating behaviors.

PURPOSE: Examine the impact of "point of decision" messages on fruit selection in a single dining hall setting. SETTING: Competitive undergraduate liberal arts college in the southeastern United States. INTERVENTION: "Point of decision" messages were compiled into a 35-slide multimedia PowerPoint presentation. Messages were displayed on a computer screen at a "point of decision" between the cookie and fruit stations during lunch for a total of 9 days. MEASURES: Baseline cookie and fruit consumption was measured 9 days prebaseline and 9 days postbaseline. A random sample of students completed surveys 1 week after the intervention. ANALYSIS: t-tests were used to examine differences between prelevels of fruit consumption and levels measured simultaneously during "point of decision" messages. Descriptive statistics were used to examine perceptions of survey items 1 week postintervention. RESULTS: A significant mean difference in daily fruit consumption was found following the slide presentation (df-8, t=-2.800; p=.023). Average daily fruit consumption at baseline was 408 (SD=73.43). Postbaseline average daily fruit consumption significantly increased (533; SD=102). No significant prebaseline and postbaseline cookie differences were found (p=.226). Approximately 71% of women and 68% of men noticed the "point of decision" messages. Nineteen percent of women and 10% of males reported modifying their food selection as a result of viewing the messages. CONCLUSION: The "point of decision" messaging significantly influenced fruit selection in a single dining hall setting.

Examining the impact of integrating physical activity on fluid intelligence and academic performance in an elementary school setting: a preliminary investigation.

PURPOSE: To examine the impact of integrating physical activity with elementary curricula on fluid intelligence and academic achievement. METHODS: A random sample of 3rd grade teachers integrated physical activity into their core curricula approximately 30 minutes a day, 3 days a week from January 2008 to April 2008. Noninvasive fluid intelligence cognitive measures were used along with State-mandated academic achievement tests. RESULTS: Experimental Group children averaged close to 1200 pedometer steps per integration day, thus averaging 3600 steps per week. Children in the Experimental Group performed significantly better on the SPM Fluid Intelligence Test. Children in the Experimental Group also performed significantly better on the Social Studies State mandated academic achievement test. Experimental Group children also received higher scores on the English/Language Arts, Math and Science achievements tests, but were not statistically significant compared with Control Group children. Children classified in Fitnessgram's Healthy Fitness Zone for BMI earned lower scores on many of the SPM Fluid Intelligence components. DISCUSSION: This investigation provides evidence that movement can influence fluid intelligence and should be considered to promote cognitive development of elementary-age children. Equally compelling were the differences in SPM Fluid Intelligence Test scores for children who were distinguished by Fitnessgram's BMI cut points.

Profile differences of users of paved versus natural-surface trails.

BACKGROUND: The goal of this study was to examine activity behavior differences between users of natural-surface versus paved trails. METHODS: The System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) direct observation instrument was used to measure activity and demographic information. Survey data were used to compare perception difference and body mass index (BMI) values among trail users. RESULTS: Significantly more paved-trail users were female (F=10.63, P=.001). A larger percentage of paved-trail users reported it to be very safe (F=4.462, P=.036). Natural-surface-trail users participated in more vigorous activity (F=83.93, P=.000). Natural-surface-trail users reported participating in longer activity bouts (F=5.133; P=.024). CONCLUSION: Natural-surface-trail users engaged in more vigorous activity, for a longer duration, and had lower self-reported BMI values.

Reliability of a brief intercept survey for trail use behaviors.

PURPOSE: This study assessed test-retest reliability of an interviewer-administered trail survey. METHODS: An intercept survey was conducted with adults using 2 paved trails in Indiana and South Carolina (N = 295; mean age = 46.9 +/- 18 y). The survey included items on frequency and duration of trail use for recreation and transportation, other patterns of trail use, and sociodemographic characteristics. Fifty-five adults completed the survey twice (2-16 d apart; mean = 7.4 +/- 2.6 d). Test-retest reliability was assessed with Spearman rank correlation coefficients, Kappa coefficients, and percent agreement. RESULTS: Kappa coefficients and percent agreement for 9 categorical items ranged from 0.65 to 0.96 and from 64.0% to 98.2%, respectively. Among these items, the lowest Kappas were found for perceived safety (0.65) and reported duration of visits for recreational purposes (0.67). Spearman rank correlation coefficients for travel distance to and on the trail and frequency of trail use during the past 7 days and past 4 weeks ranged from 0.62 to 0.93. CONCLUSION: Though further assessments of this survey with different populations and types of trails may be warranted, its overall high reliability indicates it can be used by researchers and practitioners in its current form.

A descriptive examination of the most frequently used activity settings in 25 community parks using direct observation.

BACKGROUND: The purpose was to examine 9 adult activity settings in 25 community parks to determine the most and least frequently used by gender, physical-activity (PA) intensity, and ethnicity. METHODS: All activity settings were identified, measured, and cataloged with GIS measures using the SOPARC direct observation instrument. Each setting was assessed 4 times a day for 7 consecutive days. RESULTS: Significantly more male adults were observed at the 25 parks (1598 versus 946; 63% versus 37%). Nine hundred fifty-eight (60%) male adults and 771 (81.1%) female adults used the paved trails. The second most heavily used activity setting for male adults was the softball and baseball fields (n = 239, 14.9%), and female adults chose to use the swimming pools (n = 45, 4.5%). Whites participated in considerably more vigorous PA than minorities. CONCLUSIONS: Paved trails were only in 5 of the 25 parks but were the most frequently used activity setting.