Mice lacking GD3 synthase display morphological abnormalities in the sciatic nerve and neuronal disturbances during peripheral nerve regeneration.

The ganglioside 9-O-acetyl GD3 is overexpressed in peripheral nerves after lesioning, and its expression is correlated with axonal degeneration and regeneration in adult rodents. However, the biological roles of this ganglioside during the regenerative process are unclear. We used mice lacking GD3 synthase (Siat3a KO), an enzyme that converts GM3 to GD3, which can be further converted to 9-O-acetyl GD3. Morphological analyses of longitudinal and transverse sections of the sciatic nerve revealed significant differences in the transverse area and nerve thickness. The number of axons and the levels of myelin basic protein were significantly reduced in adult KO mice compared to wild-type (WT) mice. The G-ratio was increased in KO mice compared to WT mice based on quantification of thin transverse sections stained with toluidine blue. We found that neurite outgrowth was significantly reduced in the absence of GD3. However, addition of exogenous GD3 led to neurite growth after 3 days, similar to that in WT mice. To evaluate fiber regeneration after nerve lesioning, we compared the regenerated distance from the lesion site and found that this distance was one-fourth the length in KO mice compared to WT mice. KO mice in which GD3 was administered showed markedly improved regeneration compared to the control KO mice. In summary, we suggest that 9-O-acetyl GD3 plays biological roles in neuron-glia interactions, facilitating axonal growth and myelination induced by Schwann cells. Moreover, exogenous GD3 can be converted to 9-O-acetyl GD3 in mice lacking GD3 synthase, improving regeneration.

Ethanol increases GABA release in the embryonic avian retina.

Several mechanisms underlying ethanol action in GABAergic synapses have been proposed, one of these mechanisms is on GABA release. Here, we report that in ovo exposure to ethanol induces an increase on GABA release in the embryonic chick retina. Eleven-day-old chick embryos (E11) received an injection of either phosphate buffer saline (PBS) or ethanol (10%, v/v, diluted in PBS), and were allowed to develop until E16. A single glutamate stimulus (2 mM) showed approximately a 40% increase on GABA release in E16 retinas when compared to controls. The effect was dependent on NMDA receptors and GAD65 mRNA levels, which were increased following the ethanol treatment. However, the numbers of GABA-, GAD-, and NR1-immunoreactive cells, and the expression levels of these proteins, were not affected. We conclude that ethanol treatment at a time point when synapses are being formed during development selectively increases GABA release in the retina via a NMDA receptor-dependent process.

Expression of functional receptors and transmitter enzymes in cultured Muller cells.

Glia represents the most numerous group of nervous system cells and CNS development and function depend on glial cells. We developed a purified Muller glia culture to investigate the expression of several neurotransmitter markers on these cells, such as dopaminergic, cholinergic, GABAergic and peptidergic receptors or enzymes, based on functional assays measuring second messenger levels or Western blot for specific proteins. Purified Muller cell culture was obtained from 8-day-old (E8) embryonic chick. Glial cells cultured for 15 days (E8C15) expressed D1A and D1B receptors mRNAs, but not D1D, as detected by RT-PCR. The binding of [3H]-SCH 23390 revealed an amount of expressed receptors around 40 fmol/mg protein. Dopamine (100 microM), PACAP (50 nM) and forskolin (10 microM) induced a 50-, 30- and 40-fold cAMP accumulation on glial cells, respectively, but not ip3 production. The dopamine-promoted cAMP accumulation was blocked by 2 microM SCH 23390. Carbachol stimulated a 3-fold ip3 accumulation. Western blot analysis also revealed the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase, L-dopa decarboxylase, PAC1 receptor, GAD67 and beta2-nicotinic receptor subunit by these cells. These results indicate that several components of neurotransmitter signaling and metabolism are found in cultured Muller cells.

Regulation of vesicular acetylcholine transporter by the activation of excitatory amino acid receptors in the avian retina.

1. Previous studies have shown that phorbol esters induce protein kinase C (PKC) mediated phosphorylation of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) and change its interaction with vesamicol. However, it is not clear whether physiological activation of receptors coupled to PKC activation can alter VAChT behavior. 2. Here we tested whether activation of kaianate (KA) receptors alters VAChT. Several studies suggest that the cholinergic amacrine cells display KA/AMPA receptors that mediate excitatory input to these neurons. In addition, KA in the chicken retina can generate intracellular messengers with the potential to regulate cellular functions. 3. In cultured chicken retina (E8C11) KA reduced vesamicol binding to VAChT by 53%. This effect was potentiated by okadaic acid, a protein phosphatase inhibitor, and was totally prevented by BIM, a PKC inhibitor. 4. Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), but not alpha-PMA, reduced in more than 85% the number of L-[3H]-vesamicol-specific binding sites in chicken retina, confirming that activation of PKC can influence vesamicol binding to chicken VAChT. 5. The data show that activation of glutamatergic receptors reduces [3H]-vesamicol binding sites (VAChT) likely by activating PKC and increasing the phosphorylation of the ACh carrier.