Extended Metadynamics Protocol for Binding/Unbinding Free Energies of Peptide Ligands to Class A G-Protein-Coupled Receptors.

A metadynamics protocol is presented to characterize the binding and unbinding of peptide ligands to class A G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The protocol expands on the one previously presented for binding and unbinding small-molecule ligands to class A GPCRs and accounts for the more demanding nature of the peptide binding-unbinding process. It applies to almost all class A GPCRs. Exemplary simulations are described for subtypes Y1R, Y2R, and Y4R of the neuropeptide Y receptor family, vasopressin binding to the vasopressin V2 receptor (V2R), and oxytocin binding to the oxytocin receptor (OTR). Binding free energies and the positions of alternative binding sites are presented and, where possible, compared with the experiment.

Merging Cu(I) and Cu(II) Photocatalysis: Development of a Versatile Oxohalogenation Protocol for the Sequential Cu(II)/Cu(I)-Catalyzed Oxoallylation of Vinylarenes.

A sequential photocatalytic strategy is developed via the merger of Cu(II)/Cu(I)-catalytic cycles for the oxoallylation of vinyl arenes via α-haloketones. The initial Cu(II)-photocatalyzed oxohalogenation exploits ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) to generate halide radicals from acyl halides utilizing air as a terminal oxidant and can be employed for the late-stage modification of pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals. α-Bromoketones obtained this way can be subsequently subjected to a one-pot Cu(I)-photocatalyzed allylation. This sequential photocatalysis proceeds in a highly regio- and chemoselective fashion and is inconsequential to the electronic nature of styrenes.

Stereochemistry-Driven Interactions of α,γ-Peptide Ligands with the Neuropeptide Y Y4-Receptor.

The G-protein-coupled Y4-receptor (Y4R) and its endogenous ligand, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), suppress appetite in response to food intake and, thus, are attractive drug targets for body-weight control. The C-terminus of human PP (hPP), T32-R33-P34-R35-Y36-NH2, penetrates deep into the binding pocket with its tyrosine-amide and di-arginine motif. Here, we present two C-terminally amidated α,γ-hexapeptides (1a/b) with sequence Ac-R31-γ-CBAA32-R33-L34-R35-Y36-NH2, where γ-CBAA is the (1R,2S,3R)-configured 2-(aminomethyl)-3-phenylcyclobutanecarboxyl moiety (1a) or its mirror image (1b). Both peptides bind the Y4R (Ki of 1a/b: 0.66/12 nM) and act as partial agonists (intrinsic activity of 1a/b: 50/39%). Their induced-fit binding poses in the Y4R pocket are unique and build ligand-receptor contacts distinct from those of the C-terminus of the endogenous ligand hPP. We conclude that energetically favorable interactions, although they do not match those of the native ligand hPP, still guarantee high binding affinity (with 1a rivaling hPP) but not the maximum receptor activation.

Light-induced homolysis of copper(ii)-complexes - a perspective for photocatalysis.

Over the past decade, photocatalysis has developed into a powerful strategy for the selective functionalization of molecules through radical intermediates. Besides the well-established iridium- or ruthenium-based photocatalysts, which ideally fulfill the requirements for a photocatalyst, such as long excited-state lifetimes and photostability, the shift towards earth-abundant metal-based photocatalysts has so far been less explored. The concept of light-induced homolysis (LIH) for generating radicals has recently gained significant interest as a new platform for inducing photoreactions with earth-abundant 3d-metal complexes despite only having excited-state lifetimes in the low nanosecond range or even below. Cu(ii)-complexes play a prominent role in exploiting this concept, which will be discussed by showcasing recent developments in organic synthesis with a view to identifying the future prospects of this growing field.

Stereoselective Synthesis of Highly Functionalized Cyclohexenes via Strong-Acid-Mediated Endocyclic C-C Bond Cleavage of Monocyclopropanated Cyclopentadienes.

A stereoselective, solvent- and metal-free endocyclic C-C bond cleavage of monocyclopropanated cyclopentadienes mediated by strong acids was developed, leading to highly functionalized six-membered carbocycles with high stereocontrol. The critical step for this ring-expansion is the formation of a cyclopropyl carbocation that undergoes endocyclic ring opening via an SN2'-type attack of various nucleophiles. Subsequent synthetic transformations show the versatility of the resulting cyclohexenes for the synthesis of new compounds with nonconventional substitution patterns.

Magnetite Nanoparticles Functionalized with Thermoresponsive Polymers as a Palladium Support for Olefin and Nitroarene Hydrogenation.

A thermoresponsive and recyclable nanomaterial was synthesized by surface modification of magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs) with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-diethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (P(NIPAAm-co-DEAEMA)), having PNIPAAm as a thermoresponsive moiety and PDEAEMA for catalyst binding. Palladium (Pd) nanoparticles were incorporated into this material, and the resulting nanocatalyst was efficient in the hydrogenation of olefins and nitro compounds with turnover frequencies (TOFs) up to 750 h-1. Consistent catalytic activity in 10 consecutive runs was observed when performing the hydrogenation at 45 °C, i.e., above the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the copolymer (37 °C), followed by cooling to 15 °C, i.e., below the LCST of the copolymer.

Copper(I) Photocatalyzed Bromonitroalkylation of Olefins: Evidence for Highly Efficient Inner-Sphere Pathways.

We report the visible light-mediated copper-catalyzed vicinal difunctionalization of olefins utilizing bromonitroalkanes as ATRA reagents. This protocol is characterized by high yields and fast reaction times under environmentally benign reaction conditions with exceptional scope, allowing the rapid functionalization of both activated and unactivated olefins. Moreover, late-stage functionnalization of biologically active molecules and upscaling to gram quantities is demonstrated, which offers manifold possibilities for further transformations, e.g. access to nitro- and aminocyclopropanes. Besides the synthetic utility of the title transformation, this study undergirds the exclusive role of copper in photoredox catalysis showing its ability to stabilize and interact with radical intermediates in its coordination sphere. EPR studies suggest that such interactions can even outperform a highly favorable cyclization of transient to persistent radicals contrasting iridium-based photocatalysts.

Copper- and Photoredox-Catalyzed Cascade to Trifluoromethylated Divinyl Sulfones.

A Cu(I)-photoredox-catalyzed trifluoromethylchlorosulfonylation reaction of terminal alkynes under visible light conditions was developed, giving rise to trifluoromethyl-substituted vinylsulfonyl chlorides, which can subsequently be coupled to a second alkyne under photocatalytic conditions. The transformation proceeds with high regio- and stereoselectivity and can be applied to aliphatic and aromatic alkynes with various functional groups. Trifluoromethyl-substituted divinyl sulfones prepared by this protocol can be readily used as synthetically valuable intermediates as demonstrated with various postmodification examples.

Divergent and Synergistic Photocatalysis: Hydro- and Oxoalkylation of Vinyl Arenes for the Stereoselective Synthesis of Cyclopentanols via a Formal [4+1]-Annulation of 1,3-Dicarbonyls.

The controllable divergent reactivity of 1,3-dicarbonyls is described, which enables the efficient hydro- and oxoalkylation of vinyl arenes. Both reaction pathways are initiated through the formation of polarity-reversed C-centered-radical intermediates at the active methylene center of 1,3-dicarbonyls via direct photocatalytic C-H bond transformations. The oxoalkylation of alkenes is achieved under aerobic conditions via a Cu(II)-photomediated rebound mechanism, while the corresponding hydroalkylation becomes possible under a nitrogen atmosphere by the combination of 4CzIPN and a Brønsted base. The breadth of these divergent protocols is demonstrated in the late-stage modification of drugs and natural products and by the transformation of the products to a variety of heterocycles such as pyridines, pyrroles, or furans. Moreover, the two catalytic modes can be combined synergistically for the stereoselective construction of cyclopentanol derivatives in a formal [4+1]-annulation process.

Evidence for the recruitment of florivorous plant bugs as pollinators.

Angiosperm flowers and their animal visitors have co-evolved for at least 140 Ma, and early flowers were likely used mainly as mating and feeding sites by several groups of insects, including beetles, flies, true bugs, and thrips. Earlier studies suggested that shifts from such neutral or antagonistic relationships toward mutualistic pollination interactions between flowers and insects occurred repeatedly during angiosperm evolution. However, the evolutionary mechanisms and adaptations, which accompanied shifts toward effective pollination, are barely understood, and evidence for such scenarios has been lacking. Here, we show that Syngonium hastiferum (Araceae), a Neotropical representative of an otherwise beetle-pollinated clade, is pollinated by plant bugs (Miridae; Heteroptera), which are florivores of Syngonium schottianum and other Araceae species. We found that S. hastiferum differs in several floral traits from its beetle-pollinated relatives. Scent emission and thermogenesis occur in the morning instead of the evening hours, and its pollen surface is spiny instead of smooth. Furthermore, the floral scent of S. hastiferum includes a previously unknown natural product, (Z)-3-isopropylpent-3-en-1-ol, which we show to have a function in specifically attracting the plant bug pollinators. This is the first known case of a specialized plant bug pollination system and provides clear evidence for the hypothesis that the adoption of antagonistic florivores as pollinators can drive flower diversification. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Copper-photocatalyzed ATRA reactions: concepts, applications, and opportunities.

Atom transfer radical addition (ATRA) reactions are linchpin transformations in synthetic chemistry enabling the atom-economic difunctionalization of alkenes. Thereby a rich chemical space can be accessed through smart combinations of simple starting materials. Originally, these reactions required toxic and hazardous radical initiators or harsh thermal activation and thus, the recent resurgence and dramatic evolution of photocatalysis appeared as an attractive complement to catalyze such transformations in a mild and energy-efficient manner. Initially, this technique relied primarily on complexes of precious metals, such as ruthenium or iridium, to absorb the visible light. Hence, copper photocatalysis rapidly developed into a powerful alternative, not just from an economic point of view. Originally considered to be disadvantageous as a pathway for deactivation by quenching their excited state, the dynamic nature of Cu-complexes enables them to undergo facile ligand exchange and thus opens up special opportunities for transformations utilizing their inner-coordination sphere. Moreover, the ability of Cu(II), representing a persistent radical, to capture incipient radicals offers the possibility to access heretofore elusive two-component, but also three-component, ATRA reactions, not feasible with ruthenium or iridium catalysts. In this regard, the idea of using Cu(I)-substrate assemblies as active photocatalysts is an emerging field to achieve such 3-component coupling reactions even under enantioselective control, which is reflected by an increasing number of reports being covered in this review.

Dendritic structured palladium complexes: magnetically retrievable, highly efficient heterogeneous nanocatalyst for Suzuki and Heck cross-coupling reactions.

The recyclable nanomagnetic Pd-complex PAMAM G0-Pd@γ-Fe2O3 is reported for catalytic C-C cross-coupling reactions of challenging substrates. Mainly, a great variety of aryl chlorides can be used as substrates for Suzuki-Miyaura and Mizoroki-Heck reactions under mild reaction conditions (60-90 °C) and low catalyst loading (<1 mol% Pd) in aqueous media. The presence of numerous polar groups in the polymer matrix increases the solubility of the catalyst in water, thus facilitating its operation in aqueous environments. The immobilization of the catalyst on the surface of a magnetic platform allows its effective recovery and reuse without significant loss of catalytic activity for at least six cycles with total leaching of <1% palladium metal, meeting the requirements for acceptable metal residues in the pharmaceutical industry.

Asymmetric Total Synthesis of Meptazinol.

The first enantioselective synthesis of (S)-meptazinol in 14 steps from commercially available ethyl 4-oxo-3,4-dihydropyridine-1(2H)-carboxylate, being widely used in racemic form for pain treatment, and, en route, the formal synthesis of two anti-Alzheimer's agents are reported. A novel ring expansion of 2-azabicyclo[4.1.0]heptanes, readily available via the stereoselective cyclopropanation of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine-4-ols, provides an effective entry to 3,3-disubstituted azepanes that represent the core for a variety of approved drugs.

Visible-Light-Accelerated Copper-Catalyzed [3 + 2] Cycloaddition of N-Tosylcyclopropylamines with Alkynes/Alkenes.

Copper-catalyzed [3 + 2] cycloadditions of N-tosylcyclopropylamine with alkynes and alkenes have been accomplished under visible light irradiation. The developed approach is compatible with a range of functionalities and allows the synthesis of diversified aminated cyclopentene and cyclopentane derivatives being relevant for drug synthesis. The protocol is operationally simple and economically affordable as it does not require any ligand, base, or additives. As the key step, the one-electron oxidation of the N-tosyl moiety by visible light-induced homolysis of a transient Cu(II)-tosylamide complex is proposed, providing a facile entry for N-centered radicals.

Copper(II)-photocatalyzed decarboxylative oxygenation of carboxylic acids.

Showcasing the concept of light-induced homolysis for the generation of radicals, the CuII-photocatalyzed decarboxylative oxygenation of carboxylic acids with molecular oxygen as the terminal oxidant is described. Two CuII-carboxylate complexes with different coordination geometries were synthesized and characterized by X-ray analysis, correlating their structure with their ability to initiate light-induced decarboxylations.

Stereoselective Synthesis of Biologically Relevant Tetrahydropyridines and Dihydro-2H-pyrans via Ring-Expansion of Monocyclopropanated Heterocycles.

A stereoselective, scalable, and metal-free ring-expansion of monocyclopropanated pyrroles and furans has been developed, leading to value-added highly functionalized tetrahydropyridine and dihydro-2H-pyran derivatives. Featuring a cyclopropylcarbinyl cation rearrangement as the key step, the selective cleavage of the unactivated endocyclic cyclopropane C-C bond is achieved. Targeted transformations of the thus obtained six-membered heterocycles give access to versatile building blocks with relevance for drug synthesis.

Accessing HIV-1 Protease Inhibitors through Visible-Light-Mediated Sequential Photocatalytic Decarboxylative Radical Conjugate Addition-Elimination-Oxa-Michael Reactions.

A photocatalytic decarboxylative radical conjugate addition-elimination-oxa-Michael reaction of hydroxyalkylated carboxylic acids with cyclopentenones is developed to construct diverse cyclopentanonyl-fused functionalized 5-7 membered cyclic ethers. The stereoselective synthetic strategy is amenable to substructural variation, establishing a direct total synthetic route to two diastereomers of C3-amino cyclopentyltetrahydrofuranyl-derived potent HIV-1 protease inhibitors with low nanomolar IC50 values.

Catalyst-Free Visible-Light-Mediated Iodoamination of Olefins and Synthetic Applications.

Herein we report a catalyst- and metal-free visible-light-mediated protocol enabling the iodoamination of miscellaneous olefins. This protocol is characterized by high yields under environmentally benign reaction conditions utilizing commercially available substrates and a green and biodegradable solvent. Furthermore, the protocol allows for late-stage functionalization of bioactive molecules and can be scaled to gram quantities of product, which offers manifold possibilities for further transformations, including morpholine, piperidine, pyrrolidine, and aziridine synthesis.

An air-tolerant polymer gel-immobilized iridium photocatalyst with pumping recyclability properties.

A novel methacrylate-based cross-linked polymer gel bearing an iridium photocatalyst showed air tolerance and pumping recyclability features through its tunable swelling and deswelling ability. The photocatalytic activity of the polymer gel was demonstrated through an E-to-Z isomerisation reaction and in an azide-alkene [2+3] cycloaddition.